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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">rmfi</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Revista mexicana de fitopatología</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Rev. mex. fitopatol</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">0185-3309</issn>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2007-8080</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedad Mexicana de Fitopatología A.C.</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.18781/R.MEX.FIT.2023-4</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artículo de Revisión</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Arvenses y ruderales como potenciales fuentes de inóculo de enfermedades en hortalizas en el norte de Sinaloa</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Félix-Gastélum</surname>
						<given-names>Rubén</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Herrera-Rodríguez</surname>
						<given-names>Gabriel</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">2</xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Leyva-Madrigal</surname>
						<given-names>Karla Yeriana</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Mora-Romero</surname>
						<given-names>Guadalupe Arlene</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<institution content-type="original">1 Universidad Autónoma de Occidente, Unidad Regional Los Mochis, Departamento de Ciencias Naturales y Exactas, Bulevard Macario Gaxiola y Carretera Internacional s/n, CP 81223. Los Mochis, Sinaloa; México</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidad Autónoma de Occidente</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Autónoma de Occidente</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<city>Los Mochis</city>
					<state>Sinaloa</state>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="original"> Junta Local de Sanidad Vegetal del Valle del Fuerte. Lázaro Cárdenas, PTE. 315, Colonia Centro, Los Mochis Sinaloa, CP. 81200, México; </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Junta Local de Sanidad Vegetal del Valle del Fuerte</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Junta Local de Sanidad Vegetal del Valle del Fuerte</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<city>Los Mochis</city>
					<state>Sinaloa</state>
					<postal-code>81200</postal-code>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1">
					<label><italic>*</italic></label><bold>
 <italic>Autor de correspondencia</italic>:</bold> Rubén Félix-Gastélum <email>ruben.felix@uadeo.mx</email>
				</corresp>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>18</day>
				<month>12</month>
				<year>2023</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<year>2023</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>41</volume>
			<issue>4</issue>
			<elocation-id>RMEXFIT20234</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>31</day>
					<month>07</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>15</day>
					<month>12</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
					<license-p>Este es un artículo publicado en acceso abierto bajo una licencia Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumen</title>
				<p>Se abordan especies de arvenses y ruderales de las familias <italic>Cucurbitaceae</italic>, <italic>Solanaceae</italic> en el norte de Sinaloa, como potenciales fuentes de inóculo para el desarrollo del <italic>Tomato apex necrosis virus</italic> (ToANV), Z<italic>ucchini yellow mosaic virus</italic> (ZYMV), <italic>Watermelon mosaic virus</italic> (WMV)<italic>,</italic> (<italic>Papaya ring spot virus</italic> (PRSV-W) y (<italic>Cucumber mosaic virus</italic> (CMV). Se hace referencia al girasol silvestre como potencial fuente de inóculo para la cenicilla (<italic>Golovinomyces spadiceus</italic>); se incluyen también el tabaquillo para el tizón foliar (<italic>Alternaria</italic> spp.), el chichiquelite para la mancha de la hoja (<italic>Curvularia moehlemvekiae</italic>)<italic>,</italic> el zacate Johnson para el tizón foliar (<italic>Alternaria</italic> sp.), la higuerilla silvestre para el tizón foliar y el meloncillo silvestre para el mildiú (<italic>Pseudoperonospora cubensis</italic>). Se proponen líneas futuras de investigación multidisciplinarias enfocadas a la determinación de la patogenicidad en plantas cultivadas de virus y hongos asociados a plantas silvestres y viceversa. También se deberá estudiar la distribución espaciotemporal de plantas silvestres que pueden fungir como fuentes de inóculo, así como la de potenciales insectos vectores de enfermedades virales. La implementación de herramientas moleculares modernas, como la Secuenciación de Alto Rendimiento, para la detección de fitopatógenos es importante. Todo esto contribuirá a la aplicación de estrategias amigables con el ambiente para el control de las enfermedades en cultivos agrícolas en Sinaloa, en beneficio de los productores de hortalizas.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
				<title>Palabras clave:</title>
				<kwd>inoculo</kwd>
				<kwd>vectores</kwd>
				<kwd>manejo de enfermedades.</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="6"/>
				<table-count count="2"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="59"/>
				<page-count count="0"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introducción</title>
			<p>En Sinaloa se siembra una amplia gama de hortalizas donde sobresalen las solanáceas y las cucurbitáceas. En el primer grupo se ubican la papa (<italic>Solanum tuberosum</italic>), jitomate (<italic>Solanum lycopersicum</italic>), chile (<italic>Capsicum annum</italic>) y tomatillo (<italic>Physalis philadelphica</italic>), los cuales en el ciclo otoño invierno 2022 cubrieron una superficie de 11,975.1, 11,541.2, 15,172.4 y 7,317.9 ha, respectivamente; mientras que las cucurbitáceas están representadas por diversos tipos de calabazas y pepino que ocupan una superficie de 2,686.2 y 3,874.9 ha, durante el mismo año. El valor anual de la producción de las solanáceas alcanzó 13,618,770,410 de pesos en tanto que las cucurbitáceas los 2,511,114,370 pesos (SIAP, 2022).</p>
			<p>Desde un punto de vista agronómico, las arvenses se consideran como una amenaza significativa en la producción agrícola, pues compiten por nutrimentos, espacio, agua y luz con las plantas cultivadas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">Zimdahl, 1980</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Dille <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>). En cambio, aun cuando las ruderales no compiten con el desarrollo de los cultivos, éstas en ocasiones se convierten en indeseables pues crecen a la vera de los caminos y lotes baldíos en poblados y ciudades; también crecen al costado de vías férreas, así como en los taludes de drenes y canales limitando el flujo del agua cuando ocurren lluvias torrenciales provocando azolves que conducen a inundaciones. Adicionalmente, ambos tipos de plantas pueden constituir fuentes de inóculo para el desarrollo de enfermedades en cultivos de importancia económica. Estos tipos de plantas pueden fungir como hospedantes para fitopatógenos e insectos vectores que transmiten enfermedades de éstas a cultivos económicamente importantes. Los síntomas causados por diversas enfermedades son más evidentes en las plantas cultivadas que en las silvestres, lo cual se debe a varios factores: a) La mayor diversidad genética en las plantas silvestres que en las plantas cultivadas, b) heterogeneidad de las poblaciones de silvestres y limitado contacto entre plantas de la misma especie, c) a la selección natural a través del tiempo, lo que conduce a la obtención de resistencia o tolerancia de una especie a un determinado patógeno y d) a la eliminación natural de las plantas silvestres susceptibles a patógenos altamente virulentos (Wisler y Norris, 2000). Son numerosos los registros de casos en los que las plantas silvestres se involucran como fuentes de inóculo de enfermedades causadas por virus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Duffus, 1971</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Yazdkhastia <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Korbecka-Glinka, 2021</xref>) y hongos (SAGARPA-SENASICA, 2016; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Gerling <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>).</p>
			<p>En la presente revisión se abordan enfermedades de origen viral y fungoso que se han detectado en arvenses y ruderales y que presentan potencial para transmitirse a cultivos hortícolas en el norte de Sinaloa.</p>
			<p>Enfermedades virales. En la complejidad de la epidemiología de agentes virales, las plantas silvestres y plantas cultivadas como fuentes de inóculo para el Desarrollo de enfermedades (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Cuadro 1</xref>), así como las poblaciones de insectos y su motilidad, son elementos importantes para la incidencia de este tipo de enfermedades. Las arvenses y ruderales pueden ser infectadas por virus introducidos a un área de plantas cultivadas y después funcionan como fuente de inóculo permanente para otras plantas cultivadas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Broadbent, 1964</xref>). Aun cuando este aspecto permanece inexplorado en Sinaloa, no se descarta la posibilidad de que muchos de los virus que actualmente causan enfermedades en hortalizas hayan ingresado a través de semilla u otras formas de diseminación y que, a partir de plantas cultivadas, los virus se transmitieron a plantas silvestres, donde los insectos vectores ejercen un papel fundamental en el desarrollo de epidemias.</p>
			<p>Fuentes potenciales de enfermedades virales en jitomate para industria. Las enfermedades virales del jitomate para la industria limitaron la producción en una forma significativa en el norte de Sinaloa en los años 90s. Estudios donde se aplica-</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t1">
					<label>Cuadro 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Virus causantes de enfermedades en cucurbitáceas y en jitomate presentes en Sinaloa y otras regiones del mundo.</title>
					</caption>
					<table>
						<colgroup>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th align="center">Virus</th>
								<th align="center">Género</th>
								<th align="center">Vector</th>
								<th align="left">Tipo de transmisión</th>
								<th align="left">Presente en Sinaloa</th>
								<th align="center">Referencias</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td align="left"><italic>Watermelon mosaic virus</italic> (WMV)</td>
								<td align="center"><italic>Potyvirus</italic></td>
								<td align="left"><italic>Aphis gossypi, Aphis craccivora</italic></td>
								<td align="center">No persistente</td>
								<td align="right">Si</td>
								<td align="center">
									<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Zitter <italic>et al</italic>., 1996</xref>
								</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left"><italic>Papaya ringspot virus</italic> (PRSV)</td>
								<td align="center"><italic>Potyvirus</italic></td>
								<td align="left"><italic>Mysus persicae, macrosifum euphorbiae</italic></td>
								<td align="center">No persistente</td>
								<td align="right">Si</td>
								<td align="center">
									<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Zitter <italic>et al</italic>., 1996</xref>
								</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left"><italic>Zucchini yellow mosaic virus</italic> (ZYMV)</td>
								<td align="center"><italic>Potyvirus</italic></td>
								<td align="left"><italic>Aphis gossypi, Aphis craccivora</italic></td>
								<td align="center">No persistente</td>
								<td align="right">Si</td>
								<td align="center">
									<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Zitter <italic>et al</italic>., 1996</xref>
								</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left"><italic>Cuccumber mosaic virus</italic> (CMV)</td>
								<td align="center"><italic>Cucumovirus</italic></td>
								<td align="left"><italic>Mysus persicae, macrosifum euphorbiae</italic></td>
								<td align="center">No persistente</td>
								<td align="right">Si</td>
								<td align="center">
									<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Zitter <italic>et al</italic>., 1996</xref>
								</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left"><italic>Squash mosaic virus</italic> (SqMV)</td>
								<td align="center"><italic>Comovirus</italic></td>
								<td align="center"><italic>Acalyma, Erivittata, Diabrotica, Undecimpunctata, Henosepilachna, Vigintioctopunctata.</italic></td>
								<td align="center">Se transmite hasta por 20 días después de su adquisición por el insecto.</td>
								<td align="right">No</td>
								<td align="center">
									<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Tolín e<italic>t al</italic>., 2016</xref>
								</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left"><italic>Tomato severe rugose virus</italic> (ToSRV)</td>
								<td align="center"><italic>Begomovirus</italic></td>
								<td align="center"><italic>Bemisia tabaci</italic></td>
								<td align="center">Circulativo</td>
								<td align="right">No</td>
								<td align="center">
									<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Zitter <italic>et al.,</italic> 1996</xref>.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left"><italic>Chino del tomate virus</italic> (CdTV)</td>
								<td align="center"><italic>Begomovirus</italic></td>
								<td align="center"><italic>Bemisia tabaci</italic></td>
								<td align="center">Circulativo</td>
								<td align="right">Si</td>
								<td align="center">
									<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Brown, 1988</xref>
								</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left"><italic>Sinaloa tomato leaf curl virus</italic> (ToMoV)</td>
								<td align="center"><italic>Begomovirus</italic></td>
								<td align="center"><italic>Bemisia tabaci</italic></td>
								<td align="center">Circulativo</td>
								<td align="right">Si</td>
								<td align="center">Idris y Brown, 1998</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left"><italic>Tomato yellow leaf curl virus</italic> (TYLCV)</td>
								<td align="center"><italic>Begomovirus</italic></td>
								<td align="center"><italic>Bemisia tabaci</italic></td>
								<td align="center">Circulativo</td>
								<td align="right">Si</td>
								<td align="left">
									<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Ascencio-Ibañez <italic>et al</italic>., 1999</xref>.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left"><italic>Tomato marchitez virus</italic> (ToMarV)</td>
								<td align="center"><italic>Torradovirus</italic></td>
								<td align="center"><italic>Bemisia tabaci</italic></td>
								<td align="center">Semi-persistente</td>
								<td align="right">Si</td>
								<td align="center">
									<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">Turina <italic>et al</italic>., 2007</xref>.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left"><italic>Tomato chlorosis virus</italic> (ToCV)</td>
								<td align="center"><italic>Crinivirus</italic></td>
								<td align="center"><italic>Trialeurodes abutilonea</italic>/ <italic>Bemisia tabaci</italic>/<italic>T. vaporariorum</italic></td>
								<td align="center">Semi-persistente</td>
								<td align="right">Si</td>
								<td align="left">
									<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Alvarez-Ruiz <italic>et al</italic>., 2007</xref>.</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>ron herramientas de geoestadística indicaron una alta correlación entre la presencia de arvenses y ruderales de las familias Malvaceae, Sterculiaceae, Euophorbiaceae, Nyctaginaceae y Leguminaceae, con síntomas inducidos por geminivirus. En cambio, especies de la familia Solanaceae presentaron incidencia de <italic>Tobacco etch virus</italic> (TEV), <italic>Pepper mottle virus</italic> (PepMoV), <italic>Cucumber mosaic virus</italic> (CMV) y <italic>Tomato spotted wilt virus</italic> (TSWV). La presencia de plantas sintomáticas y las poblaciones de mosca blanca, áfidos y trips estuvo altamente correlacionado con la incidencia de dichos virus en tomate para industria. Además, estudios de Sistemas de Información Geográfica (GeoEAS; USEPA-LV.EAD, Las Vegas, NV) para análisis de variables de riesgo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Myers, 1991</xref>), así como la aplicación el bloqueo de 5x5 km mediante el sistema Kriging para la estimación de riesgo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Isaaks, 1989</xref>; Myers, 1991) permitieron detectar sectores del norte de Sinaloa con incidencia de 0 al 2</p>
			<p>% y otros con incidencia de 25 al 100 % de enfermedades virales en jitomate. Con base en esta información se diseñó y validó un sistema de manejo de enfermedades virales en el cultivo, el cual consistió en la selección de los distritos de riego con un menor riesgo de incidencia de este tipo de enfermedades, donde se consideraron además la etapa de siembra, eliminación de arvenses y ruderales en un área de 100 m contiguos a los límites de los lotes de siembra, en aquellos distritos que presentaban un alto grado de riesgo de incidencia de estas enfermedades (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Nelson <italic>et al</italic>., 1994</xref>). En la época de este estudio se sembraban 7,000 ha de caña de azúcar (<italic>Saccharum officinarum</italic>) en el norte de Sinaloa, mismas que presentaban altas poblaciones de arvenses infectadas con <italic>Tobacco etch virus</italic> (TEV), <italic>cucumber mosaic virus</italic> (CMV) transmitidos por áfidos, complejo de <italic>geminivirus</italic>, transmitidos por mosca blanca, <italic>Tomato spotted wilt virus</italic> ( TSWV), transmitido por trips, y el <italic>Tomato mosaic virus</italic> (TMV) con vector desconocido, a la vez las arvenses eran colonizadas por los insectos vectores antes señalados que los transmitían a plantaciones de jitomate para la industria. Actualmente, no se siembra caña de azúcar en la región y sin duda el nivel de riesgo de incidencia de enfermedades virales ha disminuido; sin embargo, en años recientes han surgido el <italic>Tomato apex necrosis virus</italic> (ToANV) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Barajas-Ortiz, 2013</xref>), <italic>Zucchini yellow mosaic virus</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Félix-Gastelum <italic>et al</italic>., 2007</xref>), lo que justifica estudios a nivel regional como el realizado en los 90s, y la subsecuente implementación de este sistema para el manejo de las enfermedades virales en hortalizas.</p>
			<p><bold>El <italic>Tomato apex necrosis virus</italic> en tomate y tomatillo<italic>.</italic> 
</bold> En los 10 años recientes se han realizado estudios sobre detección de <italic>Tomato apex necrosis virus</italic> (ToANV). La enfermedad causó pérdidas en trasplantes de 100 % en jitomate y tomatillo en el Valle del Fuerte y del Carrizo en superficies de 400 y 300 ha de ambos cultivos en los ciclos 2011-2012 y 2012-2013. Los daños se observaron principalmente en trasplantes de híbridos susceptibles establecidos en septiembre. Aun cuando las poblaciones de mosca blanca (<italic>Bemisia tabaci</italic>) fueron bajas, las poblaciones de plantas silvestres con síntomas virales eran altas, debido a las lluvias del verano; esto indica una alta eficiencia de la mosca blanca como vector. Los síntomas en jitomate son necrosis de los brotes jóvenes de las plantas y frutos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref> A y B). En tomatillo inicialmente se presenta mosaico en hojas y en estado avanzado de la enfermedad</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f1">
					<label>Figura 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Síntomas inducidos por <italic>Tomato apex necrosis virus</italic> (ToANV). A) Necrosis de rama joven en jitomate; B) Necrosis en frutos de jitomate; C) clorosis intervenal en planta de tomatillo; D) Amarillamiento en brotes jóvenes de tomatillo silvestre (<italic>Physallis</italic> sp.); E) Amarillamiento leve y deformación de síntomas iniciales en chichiquelite (<italic>Solanum nigrum</italic>); F) Síntomas iniciales de clorosis intervenal; G) Clorosis intensa y enverdecimiento de nervaduras en hojas de tabacón (<italic>Nicotiana glauca</italic>); H) Amarillamiento general en mala mujer (<italic>Solanum asureum</italic>).</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-41-04-RMEXFIT20234-gf1.png"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>ocurre un amarillamiento total de las mismas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>C) y de la planta en general (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>), con efectos en vigor y limitación en la producción y calidad de esta hortaliza, al grado de que los productores destruyen el cultivo para la siembra de maíz (<italic>Zea mays</italic>) o sorgo (<italic>Sorghum bicolor</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Espinoza-Castillo, 2013</xref>).</p>
			<p>El ToANV se ha detectado en arvenses y ruderales de la familia Solanaceae mediante pruebas serológicas y RT-PCR; como el tomatillo silvestre (<italic>Physalis</italic> sp<italic>.</italic>) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>D), chichiquelite (<italic>Solanum nigrum</italic>) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>E), toloache (<italic>Datura</italic> sp.), tabacón (<italic>Nicotiana glauca</italic>) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figuras 1</xref>F y G) y mala mujer (<italic>Solanum asureum</italic>) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>H). Pruebas adicionales indicaron que la mosca blanca transmite el virus a tomatillo y jitomate a partir de plantas silvestres (previamente mencionadas) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Espinoza-Castillo, 2013</xref>). Estos hallazgos coinciden con resultados previos que indican que el virus se trasmite por mosca blanca (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Barajas-Ortiz, 2013</xref>). Estas fuentes potenciales de inóculo están ampliamente distribuidas en el norte de Sinaloa y con frecuencia presentan síntomas de origen viral, lo cual coincide con altas poblaciones del vector y el ciclo de siembra de tomatillo y jitomate. El manejo de la enfermedad se ha direccionado hacia la utilización de variedades de jitomate tolerantes al virus y manejo de mosca blanca mediante el uso de insecticidas sistémicos en riegos presurizados y eliminación de plantas silvestres como potenciales fuentes de inóculo, lo cual da seguimiento puntual la Junta Local de Sanidad Vegetal del Valle del Fuerte.</p>
			<p><bold>Cucurbitáceas silvestres como fuentes de inóculo para enfermedades virales en calabaza zucchini<italic>.</italic> 
</bold> Estudios preliminares en el Valle del Fuerte indican que en calabaza zucchini ocurren infecciones por el Z<italic>ucchini yellow mosaic virus</italic> (ZYMV) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>A y B), <italic>Watermelon mosaic virus</italic> (WMV), <italic>Papaya ring spot virus</italic> (PRSV-W) y <italic>Cucumber mosaic virus</italic> (CMV), en forma individual y en coinfecciones en lotes comerciales de este cultivo; a su vez, las plantas silvestres de tabaco (<italic>Nicotiana glauca</italic>), melón silvestre (<italic>Cucumis melo</italic> var. <italic>Dudaim</italic>), pepino amargo (<italic>Momordica charantia</italic>) y pepino espinoso (<italic>Cucumis dipsaceus</italic>) presentaron los mismos virus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Félix-Gastelum <italic>et al</italic>., 2007</xref>). La detección de estos virus en las arvenses y las ruderales indican que éstas pueden actuar como fuentes de inóculo para el desarrollo de virosis en otras cucurbitáceas cultivadas en la región, lo que debe demostrarse a través de pruebas de inoculación en condiciones de invernadero mediante especies de insectos consignados como vectores de este tipo de virus<italic>.</italic> Estudios en México indican que <italic>N. glauca</italic> es reservorio del CMV, lo cual coincide con estudios en Grecia donde la misma ruderal es fuente de inóculo para el mismo virus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Volvas y Di Franco, 2004</xref>).</p>
			<p>Enfermedades foliares de origen fungoso. Las enfermedades fungosas en arvenses y ruderales, han recibido menor atención que en las plantas cultivadas, pues en</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f2">
					<label>Figura 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Síntomas inducidos por el virus Z<italic>ucchini yellows mosaic virus</italic> (ZYMV). A) Amarillamiento en hoja de calabaza Zucchini grey; B) Síntomas de deformación de fruto del mismo hospedante causado por el mismo virus.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-41-04-RMEXFIT20234-gf2.png"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>éstas causan pérdidas económicas, mientras que en las plantas silvestres con frecuencia pasan desapercibidas en ambientes naturales. Algunas plantas fungen como hospedantes alternos, lo cual es esencial en el ciclo de vida de las enfermedades. En este sentido resalta la roya de trigo causada por <italic>Puccinia graminis</italic> f. sp. <italic>tritici</italic> donde al hospedante alterno (<italic>Berberis vulgaris</italic>) lo infectan las basidiosporas y ocurre intercambio genético, para formar aecias y aeciósporas que infectan nuevamente al trigo. Esto permite que el ciclo biológico se repita (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Leonard y Szabo, 2005</xref>). También se sabe que en Alemania, en los márgenes de los hundimientos del suelo (“kettle holes” en inglés) crecen diferentes especies de Poaceas y plantas herbáceas que son infectadas hasta por 12 especies de <italic>Fusarium</italic> durante el otoño-invierno, los cuales presentan potencial para causar enfermedades en cultivos agrícolas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Gerling <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>); así mismo, <italic>Phomopsis</italic> sp., <italic>Phomopsis longicolla</italic> y <italic>Diaporthe phaseolorum,</italic> aislados de las arvenses <italic>Eclipta postrata</italic>, <italic>Ipomea lacunosa</italic> y <italic>Desmenthus illinoensi</italic>s causaron enfermedad en hipocótilos, vainas y semillas de soya (<italic>Glycine max</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Mengistu <italic>et al</italic>., 2007</xref>). A continuación, se describen arvenses y ruderales como potenciales fuentes de inóculo para el desarrollo de enfermedades de foliares fungosas en Sinaloa.</p>
			<p><bold>La cenicilla (<italic>Golovinomyces spadiceus</italic>) del girasol silvestre (<italic>Helianthus annus</italic>)<italic>.</italic> 
</bold> Estudios sobre la cenicilla del girasol silvestre (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>D) indicaron que <italic>G. spadiceus</italic> es agente causal de la enfermedad en Sinaloa y éste causó la enfermedad en girasol comercial en inoculaciones artificiales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Félix-Gastélum <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Este estudio reviste importancia, el girasol silvestre puede fungir como fuente de inóculo para el desarrollo de la enfermedad en girasol cultivado. Es importante recalcar que el girasol silvestre crece como arvense compitiendo con el maíz (<italic>Zea mays</italic>), frijol (<italic>Phaseolus vulgaris</italic>) y otros cultivos, además de crecer como ruderal en los linderos de caminos, así como en bordos y taludes de drenes y canales durante el invierno e inicios de primavera, coincidiendo con las siembras de girasol comercial en la región.</p>
			<p><bold>El tizón foliar (<italic>Alternaria</italic> spp<italic>.</italic>) del tabaco silvestre (<italic>Nicotiana glauca</italic>).</bold> El tabaco silvestre es una solanácea perene que crece al costado de los caminos, los bordos y taludes de canales de riego y drenes, así como en terrenos agrícolas baldíos Esta ruderal muestra lesiones irregulares de color café claro a oscuro en forma irregular en las hojas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>B), durante el ciclo otoño-invierno. La severidad de la enfermedad se acentúa cuando los periodos diarios de follaje mojado varían de 15 a 18 h y la temperatura oscilan entre 14 y 28 °C; bajo estas condiciones ocurre defoliación del tercio basal de las plantas. Estudios preliminares demostraron que una especie no identificada de <italic>Alternaria</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Simmons, 2007</xref>) es el agente causal de la enfermedad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Apodaca-Orduño, 2016</xref>). En inoculaciones artificiales el hongo resultó patogénico en jitomate, causando lesiones café claro a oscuro con anillos concéntricos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>C), similares a los del tizón temprano causado por <italic>A. solani</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Sánchez-Castro, 1998</xref>) y <italic>A. tomatophila</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Jones <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>). Estos resultados demuestran que el tabaco silvestre es fuente potencial de inóculo para el desarrollo del tizón temprano en tomate por una nueva especie de <italic>Alternaria</italic> en México y en otras partes del mundo.</p>
			<p><bold>El tizón foliar del tabaquillo (<italic>Nicotiana trigonophylla</italic>) y chichiquelite (<italic>Solanum nigrum</italic>).</bold> El tabaquillo y el chichiquelite son plantas anuales que crecen durante el otoño e invierno y ocurren principalmente como arvenses y raras veces como ruderales. En años recientes, en estas plantas se observaron lesiones irregulares color café claro a oscuro de 3.0 a 5.0 mm. Con el progreso de la enfermedad, las lesiones adquieren una forma irregular y pueden cubrir hasta el 50 % de la lámina foliar infectadas. Cuando las lesiones coalescen y cubren hasta una tercera parte de la lámina foliar, se origina defoliación, principalmente en las hojas basales de las</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f3">
					<label>Figura 3</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Diferentes síntomas asociados a hongos en plantas silvestres. A) Lesiones de color café claro a oscuro y atizonamiento de la vaina de la hoja en plantas de zacate Johnson (<italic>Sorghum halepense</italic>), causadas por <italic>Curvularia muehlenbeckiae</italic>; B) Lesiones color café claro con círculos concéntricos en tabacón (<italic>Nicotiana glauca</italic>) causadas por <italic>Alternaria</italic> sp.; C) Síntomas de manchas foliares color café oscuro con anillos concéntricos causados por <italic>Alternaria</italic> sp. aislada de tabaco silvestre; D) Cenicilla causados por <italic>Golovinomyces spadiceos</italic> en hoja de girasol silvestre (<italic>Helianthus annus</italic>); E) Manchas irregulares y circulares café claro y márgenes de las hojas con atizonamiento causado por <italic>Alternaria riccini</italic> en hoja de higuerilla silvestre (<italic>Ricinus comunis</italic>) F) Síntomas de mildiú causados por <italic>Pseudoperonospora cubensis</italic> en meloncillo silvestre (<italic>Cucumis melo</italic> var. Dudaim). plantas. De las hojas sintomáticas se aislaron en forma consistente a dos especies de <italic>Alternaria</italic> pertenecientes a la sección <italic>Alternata</italic> y <italic>Curvularia muehlenbeckiae</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Guerra-Meza, 2021</xref>), pero aún no se ha demostrado su patogenicidad en ellas ni en solanáceas cultivadas.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-41-04-RMEXFIT20234-gf3.png"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p><bold>Tizón foliar (<italic>Alternaria</italic> sp.) del zacate johnson (<italic>Sorghum halepense</italic>).</bold> El zacate johnson es una Poacea anual que se encuentra como arvense y ruderal durante todo el año en Sinaloa. Durante el otoño, invierno y primavera, las plantas muestran lesiones intervenales café claro a oscuro de 1.0 a 2.0 cm (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>A). Las lesiones incrementan su tamaño hasta cubrir el 50 % del área foliar. Estudios en Sinaloa indican que la enfermedad es causada por <italic>Curvularia muehlenbeckiae</italic> (OlivasPeraza <italic>et al</italic>., 2021). El hongo también ha sido consignado causando manchas foliares en guar (<italic>Cyamopsis tetragonoloba</italic>) en Sinaloa (Tovar <italic>et al</italic>., 2022). La soya es el único hospedante económicamente importante en el que el hongo <italic>C. muehlenbeckiae</italic> causa manchas foliares en Sinaloa; también se ha registrado causando lesiones foliares en nogal pecanero (<italic>Carya illinoinensis</italic>) en China (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Lv <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>) y abeto (<italic>Cunninghamia lanceolata</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Cui, 2020</xref>) en el mismo país. En Sinaloa el hongo se ha encontrado asociado a la mancha foliar del tabaquillo (<italic>Nicotiana trigonophylla</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Guerra-Meza, 2021</xref>). Aun cuando la mancha foliar de la soya es causada por <italic>C. muehlenbeckiae</italic> en Sinaloa, se desconoce si el zacate johnson, guar y tabaquillo pueden fungir como potenciales fuentes de inóculo para el desarrollo de la enfermedad; de ahí la importancia de realizar inoculaciones cruzadas con aislados del hongo provenientes de las diferentes especies de plantas, lo cual contribuirá al conocimiento de la ecología, epidemiología y manejo de la enfermedad en los cultivos económicamente importantes.</p>
			<p><bold>Tizón foliar (<italic>Alternaria</italic> sp.) de la higuerilla silvestre (<italic>Ricinus comunis</italic>).</bold> La higuerilla silvestre se considera una especie exótica invasora la cual se comporta como perenne cuando crece como ruderal en Sinaloa. Las hojas muestran manchas irregulares de café claro a oscuro de 0.5 a 1.0 cm (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>E); cuando las manchas coleasen cubren hasta el 25 % de la lámina foliar, lo que provoca defoliación, principalmente en las hojas del tercio inferior de las plantas. Estudios preliminares han demostrado que la mancha foliar de la higuerilla silvestre es causada por <italic>Alternaria ricini</italic> y que en inoculaciones artificiales también causó la enfermedad en higuerilla comercial (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Olivas-Peraza, 2018</xref>), lo cual coincide con reportes previos de la enfermedad donde se ha implicado a <italic>A. ricini</italic> como agente causal de la enfermedad en higuerilla comercial en México (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">López-Guillén <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>) y otras partes del mundo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Masirevic <italic>et al</italic>., 1993</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Nagaraja y Krishnappa, 2016</xref>a; 2016b). En Sinaloa, los síntomas del tizón foliar en higuerilla silvestre ocurren durante el otoño invierno cuando los periodos de humedad relativa ≥ 90 % de 12 a 16 h diarias y la temperatura oscila entre 8 y 28 °C, lo cual coincide con el ciclo de higuerilla comercial. Las pruebas de patogenicidad indican que la higuerilla silvestre es una fuente potencial de inóculo para el desarrollo del tizón foliar causado por <italic>A. riccini</italic> en higuerilla cultivada.</p>
			<p><bold>El mildiú (<italic>Pseudoperonospora cubensis</italic>) del meloncillo silvestre (<italic>Cucumis melo</italic> var. Dudaim).</bold> El meloncillo crece como arvense, pero también como ruderal en el norte de Sinaloa. Se presenta en altas poblaciones en terrenos agrícolas baldíos durante el verano y principios de otoño en Sinaloa. En los seis años recientes esta planta ha mostrado síntomas y signos de mildiú. La enfermedad es policíclica y las plantas presentan manchas de verde pálido a amarillo sin delimitación por las nervaduras en el haz (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>F) y en el envés, los signos consisten en esporangióforos y esporangios con un crecimiento velloso color café o púrpura. La incidencia de mildiú en meloncillo es del 100 % y destruye hasta el 50 % del follaje de las plantas. Los primeros síntomas de la enfermedad en meloncillo silvestre se observan durante la última semana de septiembre y la primera semana de octubre, cuando aún no se trasplantan cucurbitáceas comerciales en la región. No se ha demostrado la patogenicidad de <italic>P. cubensis</italic> proveniente de meloncillo silvestre en cucurbitáceas cultivadas en Sinaloa, pero, estudios en Estados Unidos de Norteamérica indican que <italic>P. cubensis</italic> sobrevive al invierno en cucurbitáceas silvestres o cultivadas como biotrofo obligado en Florida; mientras que el patógeno no sobrevive el invierno en los estados del Noreste del mismo país debido al frío en invierno. De ahí que, a través del viento y la presencia de hospedantes susceptibles en la ruta de diseminación, el oomiceto se disemine desde Florida hasta los estados del noreste de Los Estados Unidos de Norteamérica cuando ocurre la enfermedad durante la primavera y el verano (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Ojiambo y Holmes, 2011</xref>). En Sinaloa, las siembras en invernadero para producción de plántulas de cucurbitáceas inician la primera semana de octubre, la esporulación de <italic>P. cubensis</italic> en meloncillo silvestre es abundante y los niveles de humedad y temperatura favorecen el desarrollo de la enfermedad tanto en el meloncillo silvestre como cucurbitáceas cultivadas; sin embargo, se desconoce la forma de supervivencia del patógeno durante el verano, donde las temperaturas alcanzan hasta 40 °C.</p>
			<p>Arvenses y ruderales como potenciales fuentes de inóculo de enfermedades en hortalizas Sinaloa. En la presente revisión se abordan enfermedades de origen viral y fungoso que se han detectado en arvenses y ruderales y que tienen el potencial para presentarse en cultivos hortícolas. La importancia de las arvenses y ruderales, así como la abundancia y motilidad de insectos vectores de enfermedades virales en tomate para industria se demostró en Sinaloa, donde mediante de estudios de presencia de potenciales fuentes de inóculo, poblaciones de potenciales especies insectiles vectores de virus se diseñó un sistema de manejo de enfermedades virales en jitomate para industria (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Nelson <italic>et al</italic>., 1994</xref>).</p>
			<sec>
				<title>LÍNEAS FUTURAS DE INVESTIGACIÓN</title>
				<p>Los estudios sobre el papel que juegan las arvenses y ruderales como potenciales fuentes de inóculo para el desarrollo de enfermedades en plantas cultivadas es insipiente en México (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Nelson <italic>et al</italic>., 1994</xref>). En la presente revisión se muestra la situación actual sobre el tema en Sinaloa. Derivado del presente trabajo se proponen nuevas líneas de investigación relativas a estudios sobre la distribución espacio temporal de las plantas silvestres anuales y perenes con potencial fuente de inóculo para el desarrollo de enfermedades de origen viral y enfermedades foliares de origen fungoso en plantas cultivadas.</p>
				<p>Para la detección e identificación de hongos asociados a enfermedades foliares de plantas silvestres en el presente estudio, se recurrió a estudios morfométricos, utilización de la RT-PCR y estudios filogenéticos multigen, así como estudios de patogenicidad en algunos casos. En el caso de virus, se recurrió principalmente a pruebas serológicas. Sin duda, aun cuando requiere estudios de validación, el advenimiento de herramientas moleculares como la Secuenciación de Alto Rendimiento (SAR) (“High-Throughput Sequencing” eninglés) permitediagnósticos preliminares en la etapa inicial de diagnóstico para la identificación presuntiva de secuencias de virus donde se puede usar la RT-PCR o ELISA para confirmar el agente viral (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Massart <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>). La SAR permite detectar todos los virus incluyendo variantes nuevas, así como viroides (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Al Rwahnih <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Rott <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>). La presente revisión sólo marca el inicio de estudios futuros sobre potenciales fuentes de inóculo para el desarrollo de enfermedades en cultivos agrícolas, donde la SAR sería una herramienta de utilidad pues permitiría la detección de virus en plantas cultivadas y silvestres, inclusive en plantas asintomáticas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Jacques-Davy y Gubba, 2020</xref>). Sin embargo, la integración de herramientas como SAR y la bioinformática en el estudio de virus fitopatógenos en Sinaloa y en el resto del país, requerirá del desarrollo de proyectos que implican altas inversiones; pero éste es el camino en la implementación de estrategias sostenibles en el manejo de enfermedades de cultivos agrícolas. Aunado a ello, a estas herramientas innovadoras de detección deben de integrarse botánicos para que estudien la ecología de las ruderales y arvenses, así como virólogos, entomólogos y epidemiólogos. Además de la identificación de virus y hongos asociados a enfermedades en arvenses, también es importante demostrar la patogenicidad de éstos en las plantas cultivadas y viceversa. En los virus deberá procederse de manera similar; sin embargo, las transmisiones de los virus a partir de las plantas silvestres deberán realizarse mediante los potenciales insectos vectores, así como conocer las formas de transmisión.</p>
				<p>En el manejo de enfermedades virales en el norte de Sinaloa, resalta la implementación de niveles de riesgo para la incidencia de este tipo de enfermedades en jitomate para industria en los municipios de El Fuerte, Ahome y Guasave en los 1990s. Este modelo permitió evadir las zonas del alto riesgo para la plantación de jitomate para industria. También se aplicaron medidas de saneamiento y evasión de las altas poblaciones de insectos vectores en el manejo de las enfermedades causadas por diferentes tipos de virus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Nelson <italic>et al</italic>., 1994</xref>). Este es un caso de éxito en el manejo de este tipo de enfermedades; sin embargo, es recomendable el diseño, evaluación e implementación de niveles de riesgo, no sólo en jitomate para industria sino al grupo de hortalizas que se siembran en Sinaloa. También se deben de considerar las diferentes zonas productoras de hortalizas en el estado, pues existe variación en vegetación silvestre y sus poblaciones, así como los niveles de incidencia de enfermedades virales en este tipo de plantas pues se asume que, a mayor incidencia, las probabilidades de transmisión se incrementan. Los tipos de hortalizas y las fechas de siembra también pueden variar en Sinaloa. Al igual que las poblaciones de plantas arvenses y ruderales presentes en la región. Además, nuevas enfermedades virales han surgido en los años recientes como el <italic>Tomato apex necrosis virus</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">Turina <italic>et al</italic>., 2007</xref>), <italic>Tomato marchitez virus</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Camacho-Beltrán, 2015</xref>) y el <italic>Tomato brown rugose fruit virus</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">García-Estrada <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>), de los cuales se requiere mayor conocimiento sobre sus respectivos rangos de hospedantes. Otro aspecto de importancia en la interacción patógeno-planta silvestre es el rango de hospedantes del patógeno; en este sentido, la atención sobre el rango de hospedantes del patógeno siempre se ha direccionado hacia el rango de hospedantes en las plantas cultivadas, pero no en las plantas silvestres donde se pueden incluir patógenos con un amplio rango de hospedantes entre especies, géneros, y hasta familias (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Dinoor y Eshed, 1984</xref>), lo cual impacta de manera directa en la ecología, epidemiología y el manejo de enfermedades virales.</p>
				<p>Actualmente se desconoce el origen de los virus en plantas silvestres y cultivadas en Sinaloa. La mayoría de ellos quizás sean exóticos y se introdujeron al país a través de la semilla u otros medios. Una vez que éstos se establecieron en los cultivos agrícolas, se diseminaron a arvenses y ruderales mediante insectos vectores. De ahí la importancia de establecer medidas eficientes para detección de virus en semilla y material propagativo que se introduce al país; de esta manera se reducirá el riesgo de surgimiento de enfermedades emergentes en el país. Como medio de detección resalta el SAR, pues es direccionado hacia una amplia gama de virus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Rubio <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). Quizás esta técnica también se pueda aplicar a la detección de virus en insectos vectores potenciales en el futuro.</p>
				<p>En enfermedades virales ya establecidas tanto plantas silvestres como cultivadas en Sinaloa, se debe recurrir a: a) artrópodos depredadores y parasitoides (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Dáder <italic>et al</italic>., 2012</xref>), así como hongos entomopatógenos, nemátodos y bacterias como agentes de control biológico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Kalha <italic>et al</italic>., 2014</xref>); b) inhibidores de proteasas, neurotoxinas o silenciamiento de genes mediante ARN dirigidos a metabolismo primario del insecto vector (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Fereres y Raccah, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Nandety <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Vogel <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>); c) prácticas agronómicas como fechas de siembra direccionadas a evadir altas poblaciones de insectos vectores y d) se puede interferir en el proceso de transmisión mediante la aplicación de aceite mineral péptidos sintéticos o proteínas modificadas que compiten con proteínas codificadas por los virus, las cuales pueden interactuar con receptores del insecto vector (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Lecoq y Desbiez, 2012</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Blanc <italic>et al</italic>., 2014</xref>) .</p>
				<p>En enfermedades en arvenses y ruderales existe un amplio espacio para la identificación de hongos asociados a éstas; también se debe de determinar su patogenicidad en plantas de importancia agrícola y viceversa, principalmente cuando en ambos coinciden especies del mismo género y/o especies. Se requieren también estudios sobre la ecología de los hongos asociados a las plantas silvestres, pues es frecuente observar que están presentes en arvenses y ruderales durante el otoño invierno y los síntomas no ocurren durante el verano cuando las temperaturas alcanzan los 39-40 °C en el norte de Sinaloa.</p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusiones</title>
			<p>En Sinaloa se cultivan una amplia gama de hortalizas. La incidencia de enfermedades virales y fungosas es frecuente en solanáceas y cucurbitáceas cultivadas durante la temporada otoño-invierno en la región. Paralelamente diversas especies de arvenses ruderales pertenecientes a éstas y otras familias botánicas muestran síntomas de enfermedades virales y fungosas en el entorno donde se cultivan las hortalizas. La asociación de estos patógenos a las plantas silvestres implica riesgo de transmisión hacia las plantas cultivadas. A la fecha no existen estudios sobre la distribución espacio-temporal de las arvenses y ruderales en los valles de Sinaloa, así como las fluctuaciones poblacionales de los potenciales insectos vectores de las enfermedades virales de este tipo de plantas a las plantas cultivadas y viceversa. Tampoco existen sistemas modernos para detección de fitopatógenos tanto en plantas como en los potenciales vectores. Líneas futuras de investigación deberán abordar estos tópicos donde participen Botánicos, Entomólogos, Fitopatólogos, Epidemiólogos y Bioinformáticos; esto permitirá un manejo sostenible de las enfermedades de las hortalizas y otros cultivos de importancia en Sinaloa.</p>
		</sec>
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					<subject>Review Article</subject>
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				<article-title>Weeds and ruderal plants as potential sources of inoculum for vegetable diseases in northern Sinaloa</article-title>
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				<p>Weeds and ruderal plants of the families Cucurbitaceae and Solanaceae are addressed as potential sources of inoculum for the development of viral diseases such as <italic>Tomato apex necrosis virus</italic> (ToANV), zucchini (Z<italic>ucchini yellow mosaic virus</italic> (ZYMV), <italic>Watermelon mosaic virus</italic> (WMV)<italic>, Papaya ring spot virus</italic> (PRSV-W) and <italic>Cucumber mosaic virus</italic> (CMV). Reference is made to weeds and ruderal plants as potential sources of inoculum, including wild sunflower for powdery mildew (<italic>Golovinomyces spadiceus</italic>), wild tobacco for foliar blight (<italic>Alternaria</italic> spp.), black nightshade for leaf spot (<italic>Curvularia moehlemvekiae</italic>)<italic>,</italic> Johnson grass for foliar blight (<italic>Alternaria</italic> sp.), and wild castor bean for foliar blight (<italic>Alternaria ricini</italic>) and wild melon for downy mildew (<italic>Pseudoperonospora cubensis</italic>). Future lines of multidisciplinary research focusing on the determination of pathogenicity in cultivated plants of viruses and fungi associated with wild plants and vice versa are proposed; the spatial-temporal distribution of wild plants that may serve as sources of inoculum, as well as the of potential insect vectors of viral diseases, should also be studied. The implementation of modern molecular techniques, such as High Throughput Sequencing, for the detection of phytopathogens is important. All this will contribute to the implementation of environmentally friendly strategies for disease control in agricultural crops in Sinaloa, for the benefit of the vegetable growers.</p>
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			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>inoculum</kwd>
				<kwd>vectors</kwd>
				<kwd>managements of diseases.</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introduction</title>
				<p>In Sinaloa, a wide range of vegetables are grown, of which Solanaceous and Cucurbitaceous crops stand out. The first group includes the potato (<italic>Solanum tuberosum</italic>), tomato (<italic>Solanum lycopersicum</italic>), pepper (<italic>Capsicum annum</italic>) and husk tomatoes (<italic>Physalis philadelphica</italic>), which, in the fall-winter season of 2022, covered a surface of 11,975.1; 11,541.2; 15,172.4 and 7,317.9 ha, respectively. Meanwhile, cucurbitaceous crops are represented by different types of pumpkin and cucumber that cover a surface of de 2,686.2 and 3,874.9 ha in the same growing season. The annual value of the production of solanaceous crops reached 13,618,770,410 pesos, while cucurbitaceous crops reached 2,511,114,370 pesos (SIAP, 2022).</p>
				<p>From an agronomic point of view, weeds are considered a significant threat to agricultural production, since they compete for nutrients, space, water and light with cultivated plants (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">Zimdahl, 1980</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Dille <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>). On the other hand, although ruderal plants do not compete with the growth of crops, they become undesirable, since they grow along roadsides and in vacant lots in towns and cities, as well alongside railways and in the embankments of drains and channels, limiting the flow of water during heavy rainfalls, causing the accumulation of sediments, which leads to floodings. In addition, both plant types can be sources of inoculum for the development of diseases in economically important crops. These types of plants can act as hosts for plant pathogens and vector insects that spread diseases from these to economically important crops. The symptoms caused by diverse diseases are more evident in cultivated plants than in wild ones, due to several factors: a) The greater genetic diversity in wild plants than in cultivated plants, b) heterogeneity of the wild populations and the limited contact between plants of the same species, c) natural selection in time, which leads to a species becoming resistant or tolerant to a certain pathogen, and d) the natural elimination of wild plants susceptible to highly virulent pathogens (Wisler and Norris, 2000). There are many records of cases in which wild plants are involved as sources of inoculants of diseases caused by viruses (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Duffus, 1971</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Yazdkhastia <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Korbecka-Glinka, 2021</xref>) and fungi (SAGARPA-SENASICA, 2016; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Gerling <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>).</p>
				<p>This study addresses of viral and fungal diseases that have been found in weeds and ruderal plants and which display a potential for spreading to horticultural crops in northern Sinaloa.</p>
				<p>Viral diseases. In the complexity of the epidemiology of viral agents, wild and cultivated plants, as sources of inoculum for the development of diseases (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 1</xref>), as well as the insect population and its motility, are important elements for the incidence of this type of diseases. Weeds and ruderals can be infected by viruses introduced to an area of cultivated plants, and then serve as a permanent source of</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t2">
						<label>Table 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Viruses causing diseases in cucurbits and tomato in Sinaloa and other parts of the world.</title>
						</caption>
						<table>
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="center">Virus</th>
									<th align="center">Genus</th>
									<th align="center">Vector</th>
									<th align="left">Mode of transmision</th>
									<th align="center">Presente in Sinaloa</th>
									<th align="center">Reference</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td align="left"><italic>Watermelon mosaic virus</italic> (WMV)</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>Potyvirus</italic></td>
									<td align="left"><italic>Aphis gossypi, Aphis craccivora</italic></td>
									<td align="center">Non persistent</td>
									<td align="center">Yes</td>
									<td align="center">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Zitter <italic>et al</italic>., 1996</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left"><italic>Papaya ringspot virus</italic> (PRSV)</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>Potyvirus</italic></td>
									<td align="left"><italic>Mysus pérsicae, macrosifum euphorbiae</italic></td>
									<td align="center">Non persistent</td>
									<td align="center">Yes</td>
									<td align="center">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Zitter <italic>et al</italic>., 1996</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left"><italic>Zucchini yellow mosaic virus</italic> (ZYMV)</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>Potyvirus</italic></td>
									<td align="left"><italic>Aphis gossypi, Aphis craccivora</italic></td>
									<td align="center">Non persistent</td>
									<td align="center">Yes</td>
									<td align="center">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Zitter <italic>et al</italic>., 1996</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left"><italic>Cuccumber mosaic virus</italic> (CMV)</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>Cucumovirus</italic></td>
									<td align="left"><italic>Mysus pérsicae, macrosifum euphorbiae</italic></td>
									<td align="center">Non persistent</td>
									<td align="center">Yes</td>
									<td align="center">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Zitter <italic>et al</italic>., 1996</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left"><italic>Squash mosaic virus</italic> (SqMV)</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>Comovirus</italic></td>
									<td align="center"><italic>Acalyma, Erivittata, Diabrotica, Undecimpunctata, Henosepilachna, Vigintioctopunctata.</italic></td>
									<td align="justify">Vector transmission occurs for 20 days after adquisición</td>
									<td align="center">Not</td>
									<td align="center">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Tolín e<italic>t al</italic>., 2016</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left"><italic>Tomato severe rugose virus</italic> (ToSRV)</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>Begomovirus</italic></td>
									<td align="center"><italic>Bemisia tabaci</italic></td>
									<td align="center">Circulative</td>
									<td align="center">Not</td>
									<td align="center">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Zitter <italic>et al.,</italic> 1996</xref>.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left"><italic>Chino del tomate virus</italic> (CdTV)</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>Begomovirus</italic></td>
									<td align="center"><italic>Bemisia tabaci</italic></td>
									<td align="center">Circulative</td>
									<td align="center">Yes</td>
									<td align="center">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Brown, 1988</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left"><italic>Sinaloa tomato leaf curl virus</italic> (ToMoV)</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>Begomovirus</italic></td>
									<td align="center"><italic>Bemisia tabaci</italic></td>
									<td align="center">Circulative</td>
									<td align="center">Yes</td>
									<td align="left">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Idris y Brown, 1998</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left"><italic>Tomato yellow leaf curl virus</italic> (TYLCV)</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>Begomovirus</italic></td>
									<td align="center"><italic>Bemisia tabaci</italic></td>
									<td align="center">Circulative</td>
									<td align="center">Yes</td>
									<td align="left">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Ascencio-Ibañez <italic>et al</italic>., 1999</xref>.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left"><italic>Tomato marchitez virus</italic> (ToMarV)</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>Torradovirus</italic></td>
									<td align="center"><italic>Bemisia tabaci</italic></td>
									<td align="center">Semi-persistent</td>
									<td align="center">Yes</td>
									<td align="center">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">Turina <italic>et al</italic>., 2007</xref>.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left"><italic>Tomato chlorosis virus</italic> (ToCV)</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>Crinivirus</italic></td>
									<td align="center"><italic>Trialeurodes abutilonea</italic>/ <italic>Bemisia tabaco</italic>/<italic>T. vaporariorum</italic></td>
									<td align="center">Semi-persistent</td>
									<td align="center">Yes</td>
									<td align="center">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Alvarez-Ruiz <italic>et al</italic>., 2007</xref>.</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>inoculum for other cultivated plants (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Broadbent, 1964</xref>). Although this aspect remains unexplored in Sinaloa, the possibility that many of the viruses that currently cause diseases in vegetable crops entered via seeds or other ways to spread diseases is not discarded, as well as the viruses being transmitted from cultivated plants to wild plants, where insect vectors play a crucial role in the development of epidemics.</p>
				<p>Potential sources of viral diseases in tomatoes for processing. The viral diseases in processing tomatoes significantly limited the production in northern Sinaloa in the 1990s. Studies in which geostatistical tools were used indicated a high correlation between the presence of weeds and ruderals of the families Malvaceae, Sterculiaceae, Euophorbiaceae, Nyctaginaceae and Leguminaceae, with symptoms induced by geminivirus. Addditonally, species of the family Solanaceae displayed incidence of <italic>Tobacco etch virus</italic> (TEV), <italic>Pepper mottle virus</italic> (PepMoV), <italic>Cucumber mosaic virus</italic> (CMV) and <italic>Tomato spotted wilt virus</italic> (TSWV). The presence of symptomatic plants and populations of whiteflies, aphids and thrips was highly correlated with the incidence of these viruses in tomatoes for processing. Furthermore, Geographic Information Systems (GeoEAS; USEPA-LV.EAD, Las Vegas, NV), studies on the analysis of risk variables (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Myers, 1991</xref>), as well as the application of the 5x5 km grid using the Kriging system for risk estimation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Isaaks MJ. 1989</xref>; Myers, 1991) helped on determining sectors of northern Sinaloa with incidences ranging between 0 and 2% and others with incidences between 25 and 100% of viral diseases in tomato. Based on this information, a management system was designed and validated for viral diseases in the crop, which consisted of the selection of the irrigation districts with the lower risk of incidence of this type of disease, and where the planting stage was considered, along with the elimination of weeds and ruderals in an area of 200 m adjacent to the vegetable plantations, in the districts that displayed a high risk of incidence of these diseases (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Nelson <italic>et al</italic>., 1994</xref>). During the time of the development of this study, 7,000 ha of sugarcane (<italic>Saccharum officinarum</italic>) were planted in northern Sinaloa, which displayed large weed populations infected with the <italic>Tobacco etch virus</italic> (TEV), the <italic>cucumber mosaic virus</italic> (CMV) transmitted by aphids, <italic>geminivirus</italic> complex transmitted by whiteflies, the <italic>Tomato spotted wilt virus</italic> (TSWV) transmitted by thrips, and the <italic>Tomato mosaic virus</italic> (TMV) with an unknown vector. Meanwhile, the weeds were colonized by the insect vectors mentioned above, which transmitted them to tomato plantations for processing. Nowadays, sugarcane is not being planted in the area, and undoubtedly, the level of risk of incidence of viral diseases has decreased. However, in recent years, the <italic>Tomato apex necrosis virus</italic> (ToANV) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Barajas-Ortiz, 2013</xref>) and the <italic>Zucchini yellow mosaic virus</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Félix-Gastelum <italic>et al</italic>., 2007</xref>) have emerged, which justifies regional studies, such as the one carried out in the 1990s and the subsequent implantation of this system for the management of viral diseases in vegetable plantations.</p>
				<p><bold>The <italic>Tomato apex necrosis virus</italic> in tomato and <italic>tomatillo.</italic> 
</bold> In the past 10 years, studies have been carried out on the detection of the <italic>Tomato apex necrosis virus</italic> (ToANV). The disease caused losses in 100% of tomato and husk tomatoes transplants in the El Fuerte and del Carrizo Valleys on 400 and 300 ha surfaces with both crops in the 2011-2012 and 2012-2013 cycles. The damages were observed mainly in the transplanting of susceptible hybrids established in September. Despite the small whitefly (<italic>Bemisia tabaci</italic>) populations, the populations of wild plants with viral symptoms were large due to summer rains, indicating a high efficiency of the whitefly as a vector. Symptoms in tomato consist on necrosis of young plant and fruit buds (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figures 1</xref> A and B). In husk tomatoes, symptoms initially appear as a mosaic in leaves and in advanced stages of the disease, they become entirely yellow (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>C), followed by the plant in general (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>), with effects on the vigor</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f4">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Symptoms induced by <italic>Tomato apex necrosis virus</italic> (ToANV). A) Necrosis in young growth of tomato; B) Necrosis in tomato fruit; C) interveinal chlorosis in leaves of husk tomato; D) Yellowing in wild husk tomato (<italic>Physallis</italic> sp.); Slight yellowing and deformation of initial leaves in black nightshade (<italic>Solanum nigrum</italic>); F) Initial symptoms of interveinal chlorosis; G) Intense chlorosis and vein greening of wild tobacco (<italic>Nicotiana glauca</italic>) leaves; H) General yellowing in black nightshade (<italic>Solanum asureum</italic>).</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-41-04-RMEXFIT20234-gf4.png"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>and limiting the production and quality of this vegetable, to the extent in which farmers destroy the crop in order to plant maize (<italic>Zea mays</italic>) or sorghum (<italic>Sorghum bicolor</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Espinoza-Castillo, 2013</xref>).</p>
				<p>The ToANV has been detected in weeds and ruderals of the family Solanaceae using serological and RT-PCR tests, such as wild tomatillo (<italic>Physalis</italic> sp<italic>.</italic>) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>D), black nightshade (<italic>Solanum nigrum</italic>) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>E), jimsonweed (<italic>Datura</italic> sp.), wild tobacco (<italic>Nicotiana glauca</italic>) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figures 1</xref>F and G) and nightshade (<italic>Solanum asureum</italic>) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>H). Additional tests indicated that whiteflies transmit the virus to tomatillo and tomato from wild plants (mentioned earlier) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Espinoza-Castillo, 2013</xref>). These findings coincide with previous results that indicate that the virus is transmitted by whiteflies (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Barajas-Ortiz, 2013</xref>). These potential sources of inoculum are widely distributed in northern Sinaloa and frequently display viral symptoms, which coincides with large vector populations and husk tomatoes and tomato crops. The management of this disease has focused on the use of virus-tolerant tomato varieties and the management of whitefly using systemic insecticides in applied through pressurized irrigation systems and the elimination of plants as potential sources of inoculum, which is precisely followed up by the la Local Plant Health Board of the Valley del Fuerte.</p>
				<p><bold>Wild Cucurbitaceae as sources of inoculum for viral diseases in zucchini squash<italic>.</italic> 
</bold> Preliminary studies in the El Valle del Fuerte indicate that in zucchini, the infections that take place are caused by the Z<italic>ucchini yellow mosaic virus</italic> (ZYMV) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>A and B), the <italic>Watermelon mosaic virus</italic> (WMV), the <italic>Papaya ring spot virus</italic> (PRSV-W) and the <italic>Cucumber mosaic virus</italic> (CMV), both individually and as coinfections in commercial plots with this crop. Meanwhile, wild tobacco (<italic>Nicotiana glauca</italic>), wild cantaloupe (<italic>Cucumis melo</italic> var. <italic>Dudaim</italic>), bitter melon (<italic>Momordica charantia</italic>) and prickly cucumber (<italic>Cucumis dipsaceus</italic>) plants displayed the same viruses (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Félix-Gastelum <italic>et al</italic>., 2007</xref>). Finding these viruses in weeds and ruderals indicates that these can act as sources of inoculum for the development of viral diseases in other cucurbitaceous crops planted in the region, which must be proven through inoculation tests under greenhouse conditions with insect species previously reported as vectors for this type of virus<italic>.</italic> Studies in Mexico indicate that <italic>N. glauca</italic> is a CMV reservoir, which coincides with studies in Greece, where the same ruderal is a source of inoculum for the same virus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Volvas and Di Franco, 2004</xref>).</p>
				<p>Diseases caused by fungi. Fungal diseases in weeds and ruderals have received less attention than cultivated plants, since they cause economic losses in the latter, whereas wild plants frequently remain unnoticed in natural environments. Some plants act as alternate hosts, which is essential in the life cycles of diseases. In this regard, wheat rust stands out, caused by <italic>Puccinia graminis</italic> f. sp. <italic>tritici</italic>, which infects the alternate host (<italic>Berberis vulgaris</italic>) with basidiospores and genetic exchange takes place, to form aecia and aeciospores that infect the wheat plant once again. This allows the biological cycle to repeat itself (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Leonard and Szabo, 2005</xref>). It is also known that in Germany, on the edges of “kettle holes,” different species</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f5">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Symptoms induced by the virus Z<italic>ucchini yellows mosaic virus</italic> (ZYMV). A) Yellowing in Zucchini squash var. Grey leaf; B) Symptoms of deformation of the fruit of the same host caused by the same virus.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-41-04-RMEXFIT20234-gf5.png"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>of Poaceae and herbaceous plants grow, which are infected by up to 12 species of <italic>Fusarium</italic> in the autumn-winter, and which have the potential to cause diseases in agricultural crops (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Gerling <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>). Similarly, <italic>Phomopsis</italic> sp., <italic>Phomopsis longicolla</italic> and <italic>Diaporthe phaseolorum,</italic> isolated from the weeds <italic>Eclipta postrata</italic>, <italic>Ipomea lacunosa</italic> and <italic>Desmenthus illinoensi</italic>s caused diseases in hypocotyls, pods and seeds in soybean plants (<italic>Glycine max</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Mengistu <italic>et al</italic>., 2007</xref>). The following describes weeds and ruderals as potential sources of inoculum for the development of fungal leaf diseases in Sinaloa.</p>
				<p><bold>Powdery mildew (<italic>Golovinomyces spadiceus</italic>) on wild sunflower (<italic>Helianthus annus</italic>)<italic>.</italic> 
</bold> Studies on the powdery mildew on wild sunflower (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>D) indicated that <italic>G. spadiceus</italic> is the causal agent of the disease in Sinaloa and it caused the disease in commercial sunflower in artificial inoculations (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Félix-Gastélum <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). This study is important, since wild sunflower can serve as a source of inoculum for the development of the disease in cultivated sunflower. It is important</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f6">
						<label>Figure 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Symptoms induced by fungus in weeds. A) Light to dark brown lesions and browning of the leaf sheath in Johnsongrass (<italic>Sorghum halepense</italic>) plants, caused by <italic>Curvularia muehlenbeckiae</italic>; B) Symptoms of powdery mildew caused by <italic>Golovinomyces spadiceos</italic> in a wild sunflower leaf (<italic>Helianthus annus</italic>); Irregular to circular brown spots, on a leaf of castor bean plant (<italic>Ricinus comunis</italic>) caused by <italic>Alternaria</italic> sp. Irregular to circular brown spots, on a leaf of castor bean plant (<italic>Ricinus comunis</italic>) caused by <italic>Alternaria</italic> sp.; F) Symptoms of downy mildew caused by <italic>Pseudoperonospora cubensis</italic> in wild melon (<italic>Cucumis melo</italic> var. Dudaim).</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-41-04-RMEXFIT20234-gf6.png"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>to emphasize that wild sunflower grows as a weed, competing with maize (<italic>Zea mays</italic>), bean (<italic>Phaseolus vulgaris</italic>) and other crops, as well as growing as a ruderal plant on the edges of roads, embankments and slopes of drains and canals in the winter and early spring, coinciding with the commercial sunflower cultivations in the region.</p>
				<p><bold>Foliar blight (<italic>Alternaria</italic> spp<italic>.</italic>) in wild tobacco (<italic>Nicotiana glauca</italic>).</bold> Wild tobacco is a perennial solanaceous plant that grows alongside of, embankments and slopes of irrigation channels and drains, as well as in vacant agricultural fields. This ruderal appears as light to dark brown lesions in irregular shapes on leaves (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>B) during the autumn-winter cycle. The severity of the disease increases when the daily periods of wet foliage range from 15 to 18 h and temperatures fluctuate between 14 and 28 °C; under these conditions, defoliation of the basal third of plants occurs. Preliminary studies showed that an unidentified species of <italic>Alternaria</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Simmons, 2007</xref>) is the causal agent of the disease (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Apodaca-Orduño, 2016</xref>). In artificial inoculations, the fungus proved to be pathogenic in tomatoes, causing light to dark brown lesions with concentric rings (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>C), similar to those of early blight caused by <italic>A. solani</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Sánchez-Castro, 1998</xref>) y <italic>A. tomatophila</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Jones <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>). These results show that wild tobacco is a potential source of inoculum for the development of early blight in tomato, caused by a new species of <italic>Alternaria</italic> in Mexico and other parts of the world.</p>
				<p><bold>Leaf blight in coyote tobacco (<italic>Nicotiana trigonophylla</italic>) and black nightshade (<italic>Solanum nigrum</italic>).</bold> Coyote tobacco and black nightshade are annual plants that grow during the autumn and winter, mainly appear as weeds and rarely, as ruderals. In recent years, these plants displayed irregular, light to dark brown lesions measuring 3.0 to 5.0 mm. With the progress of the disease, the lesions acquire an irregular shape and can cover up to 50% of the infected leaf. When the lesions coalesce and cover up to a third of the leaf, defoliation begins, mainly on the basal leaves of the plants. Two species of <italic>Alternaria</italic> belonging to the section <italic>Alternata</italic> and <italic>Curvularia muehlenbeckiae</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Guerra-Meza, 2021</xref>) were consistently isolated, yet their pathogenicity has been proven in them or in cultivated Solanaceae.</p>
				<p><bold>Leaf blight (<italic>Alternaria</italic> sp.) of Johnson grass (<italic>Sorghum halepense</italic>).</bold> Johnson grass is an annual Poaceae that is found as a weed and ruderal all year round in Sinaloa. In the autumn, winter and spring, the plants display light to dark brown interveinal lesions measuring 1.0 a 2.0 cm (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>). The lesions increase their size until they cover 50% of the area of the leaf. Studies carried out in Sinaloa indicate that the disease is caused by <italic>Curvularia muehlenbeckiae</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Olivas-Peraza <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). The fungus has also been reported to cause leaf spots on guar (<italic>Cyamopsis tetragonoloba</italic>) in Sinaloa (Tovar <italic>et al</italic>., 2022). Soybean is the only economically important host in which the fungus <italic>C. muehlenbeckiae</italic> causes leaf spots in Sinaloa; it has also been recorded that it causes leaf lesions in pecan trees (<italic>Carya illinoinensis</italic>) in China (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Lv <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>) and firs (<italic>Cunninghamia lanceolata</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Cui, 2020</xref>), also in Chin. In Sinaloa, the fungus has been found to be associated to leaf spot on coyote tobacco (<italic>Nicotiana trigonophylla</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Guerra-Meza, 2021</xref>). Although soybean leaf blight is caused by <italic>C. muehlenbeckiae</italic> in Sinaloa, whether Johnson grass, guar and coyote tobacco can act as potential sources of inoculum for the development of the disease is unknown. Hence the importance of cross-inoculating with isolates of the fungus from different plant species, which will contribute to the understanding of the ecology, epidemiology and management of the disease in economically important crops.</p>
				<p><bold>Leaf blight (<italic>Alternaria</italic> sp.) in castor bean (<italic>Ricinus comunis</italic>).</bold> The wild castor bean is considered an exotic invasive species that behaves as perennial when growing as ruderal in Sinaloa. Its leaves display irregular, light to dark brown spots measuring between 0.5 and 1.0 cm (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>E); when the spots coalesce, they can cover up to 25% of the surface of the leaf, leading to defoliation, mainly in the leaves of the bottom third of the plants. Preliminary studies have proven that the leaf spot in the wild castor bean is caused by <italic>Alternaria ricini</italic>, and in artificial inoculations, also caused the disease in the commercial castor bean (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Olivas-Peraza, 2018</xref>), which coincides with earlier reports of the disease implicating <italic>A. ricini</italic> as the causal agent of the disease in commercial castor bean in Mexico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">López-Guillén <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>) and in other parts of the world (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Masirevic <italic>et al</italic>., 1993</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Nagaraja and Krishnappa, 2016</xref>a; 2016b). In Sinaloa, symptoms of leaf blight in wild castor bean are found during the autumn-winter, when the periods of relative humidity ≥ 90% from 12 to 16 h a day and temperatures fluctuate between 8 and 28 °C, which coincides with the cycle of the castor bean. Pathogenicity tests indicate that the wild castor bean plant is a potential source of inoculum for the development of leaf blight caused by <italic>A. riccini</italic> in cultivated castor bean.</p>
				<p><bold>Mildew (<italic>Pseudoperonospora cubensis</italic>) in wild melon (<italic>Cucumis melo</italic> var. Dudaim).</bold> Cantaloupe grows as a weed, but also as a ruderal in northern Sinaloa. It occurs in high populations in vacant agricultural fields during the summer and the early autumn in Sinaloa. In the past six years, this plant has displayed symptoms and signs of mildew. The disease is polycyclic and the plants display pale green to yellow, non-delimited spots on the upper side (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>F), and on the lower side, the signs consist of sporangiophores and sporangia with a hairy, brown or purple growth. The incidence of mildew in cantaloupe is 100% and it destroys up to 50% of the plant foliage. The first symptoms of the disease in wild cantaloupe appear in the</p>
				<p>last week in September and the first one in October, when the commercial cucurbits are still not transplanted in the region. The pathogenicity of <italic>P. cubensis</italic> from wild melon in cucurbits planted in Sinaloa has yet to be proven. However, studies in the United States indicate that <italic>P. cubensis</italic> survives the winter as an obligate biotroph in wild or cultivated cucurbits in Florida, whereas he pathogen does not survive the winter in the northeastern states of that country due to low temperatures in the winter. Thus, through wind dispersal and the presence of susceptible hosts in the dissemination path, the oomycete is spread from Florida to the northeastern states of the United States when the disease occurs during the spring and summer (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Ojiambo and Holmes, 2011</xref>). In Sinaloa, greenhouse plantations for the production of cucurbit seedlings begin on the first week in October. The sporulation of <italic>P. cubensis</italic> in wild cantaloupe is abundant and the levels of humidity and the temperatures favor the development of the disease, both in wild cantaloupe and cultivated cucurbits. However, the survival mechanism of the pathogen during the summer, when temperatures reach up to 40 °C, is unknown.</p>
				<p>Weeds and ruderals as potential sources of inoculum in vegetable diseases in vegetable gardens in Sinaloa. This study addresses viral and fungal diseases that have been found in weeds and ruderals, and which have the potential to appear on vegetable crops. The importance of weeds and ruderals, as well as the abundance and motility of insect vectors of viral diseases in tomatoes for processing was proven in Sinaloa. Through studies on the presence of potential sources of inoculum and populations of potential insect vector species, a viral disease management species a viral disease management system was designed for tomatoes for processing (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Nelson <italic>et al</italic>., 1994</xref>).</p>
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					<title>FUTURE LINES OF RESEARCH</title>
					<p>Studies on the role played by weeds and ruderals as potential sources of inoculant as potential sources of inoculum for the development of cultivated plants are incipient in Mexico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Nelson <italic>et al</italic>., 1994</xref>). This study shows the current status on the subject in Sinaloa. As a result of this work, new lines of research are proposed, concerning studies on the distribution in space and time of annual and perennial wild plants with the potential to be sources of inoculant for the development of viral diseases and fungal leaf diseases in cultivated plants.</p>
					<p>In order to identify fungi associated to foliar diseases in wild plants, we resorted to morphometric studies, the use of RT-PCR and multigene phylogenetic studies, as well as pathogenicity tests, in some cases. In the case of viruses, mainly serological tests were used. Undoubtedly, although validation tests are required, the advent of molecular tools such as High-Throughput Sequencing (HTS) enables preliminary diagnostics in the early stages of the diagnosis for the presumptive identification of virus sequences in which RT-PCR or ELISA can be used to confirm the viral agent (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Massart <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>). HTS helps find all viruses, including new variants, as well as viroids (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Al Rwahnih <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Rott <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>). This study marks only the beginning of future studies on potential sources of inoculum for the development of diseases in agricultural crops, where HTS would be a useful tool, as it would help find viruses in cultivated and wild plants, even in asymptomatic plants (JacquesDavy and Gubba, 2020). However, the use of tools such as HTS and bioinformatics in the study of phytopathogenic viruses in Sinaloa and the rest of the country will require the development of projects that imply large investments. Nevertheless, this is the pathway towards the implementation of sustainable strategies for the management of diseases in agricultural crops. Alongside this, in addition to these innovative detection tools, botanists should be included to study the ecology of ruderals and weeds, as well as virologists, entomologists and epidemiologists. Besides identifying viruses and fungi associated with diseases in weeds, it is also important to show their pathogenicity in cultivated plants and vice versa. A similar approach should be taken for viruses, although the transmissions of viruses from wild plants must be carried out through potential vector insects, as well as understanding the forms of transmission.</p>
					<p>In the management of viral diseases in northern Sinaloa, the implementation of risk assessment levels for the incidence of such diseases in tomatoes for processing in the municipalities of El Fuerte, Ahome and Guasave in the 1990s stands out. This model helped evade high-risk areas for the plantation of tomato for processing. Sanitation measures were also taken, along with the evasion of large populations of vector insects in the management of diseases caused by different types of viruses (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Nelson <italic>et al</italic>., 1994</xref>). This is a success story of the management of this type of diseases, although it is advisable to design, evaluate and implement risk levels, not only in tomato for processing, but also for the group of vegetables grown in Sinaloa. Consideration should also be given to the different produce-growing areas of the state, since there is variation in wild vegetables and their populations, as well as the levels of incidence of diseases, as it is assumed that, as the levels of incidence increase, so do probabilities of transmission. The types of vegetables and planting dates can also vary in Sinaloa, as well as the populations of weed and ruderal plants found in the region. In addition, new viral diseases have emerged in recent years, such as the <italic>Tomato apex necrosis virus</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">Turina <italic>et al</italic>., 2007</xref>), the <italic>Tomato marchitez virus</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Camacho-Beltrán, 2015</xref>) and the <italic>Tomato brown rugose fruit virus</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">García-Estrada <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>), for which greater knowledge is required regarding their respective host ranges. Another important aspect of the pathogen-wild plant interaction is the range of hosts of the pathogen. In this regard, attention to the host range of the pathogen has always been directed towards cultivated plants, but not on wild plants where pathogens with a broad host range in which a wide range of hosts between species, genera and even families can be included (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Dinoor and Eshed, 1984</xref>), which has a direct impact on the ecology, epidemiology and the management of viral diseases.</p>
					<p>To date, the origin of viruses in wild and cultivated plants in Sinaloa is unknown. Most of them are perhaps exotic and were introduced into the country via a seed or other means. Once these viruses became established in agricultural crops, they spread to weeds and ruderals through vector insects. Hence the importance of establishing efficient means to detect viruses on seeds and propagational material introduced into the country; in this way, the risk of emerging diseases in the country can be reduced. High-Throughput Sequencing (HTS) stands out as a detection method, since it is redirected to a wide range of viruses (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Rubio <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). Perhaps this technique can also be applied to the detection of viruses in potential vector insects in the future.</p>
					<p>For established viral diseases affecting both wild and cultivated plants in Sinaloa, it is important to consider resorting to: a) predatory arthropods and parasitoids (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Dáder <italic>et al</italic>., 2012</xref>), as well as entomopathogenic fungi, nematodes and bacteria as biological control agents (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Kalha <italic>et al</italic>., 2014</xref>); b) protease inhibitors, neurotoxins or gene silencing through RNA targeting the primary metabolism of the vector insect (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Fereres and Raccah, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Nandety <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Vogel <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>); c) agronomic practices such as targeted planting dates to avoid large populations of vector insects and d) interference in the transmission process by applying mineral oil, synthetic peptides or modified proteins that compete with proteins codified by the viruses, which can interact with receptors of the vector insect (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Lecoq and Desbiez, 2012</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Blanc <italic>et al</italic>., 2014</xref>) .</p>
					<p>In diseases in weeds and ruderals, there is a wide space for the identification of fungi associated with them. Their pathogenicity must also be determined in agriculturally important plants and vice versa, mainly when in both there is a coincidence of species of the same genus and/or species. Studies are also required on the ecology of fungi associated to wild plants, since it is common to find them in weeds and ruderals during the autumn-winter and the symptoms do not appear in the summer, when temperatures reach 39-40 °C in northern Sinaloa.</p>
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			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusions</title>
				<p>In Sinaloa, a wide range of vegetables is planted. The incidence of viral and fungal diseases is frequent in solanaceae and cucurbitceae planted during the autumn-winter season in the area. At the same time, several species of ruderal weeds belonging to these and other botanical families display symptoms of viral and fungal diseases in the environment in which the produce is grown. The relationship between these pathogens with wild plants implies a risk of transmission towards the cultivated plants. To date there are no studies on the spatial and temporary distribution of weeds and ruderals in the valleys of Sinaloa, as well as the populational fluctuations of the vector insects of the viral diseases of this type of plants to cultivated plants and vice versa. There are also no modern systems to detect phytopathogens in plants or in potential vectors. Future research lines should address these topics, with the collaboration of botanists, entomologists, plant pathologists, and bioinformaticians; this will allow a sustainable management of diseases in vegetable gardens and other important crops in Sinaloa.</p>
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