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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">rmfi</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Revista mexicana de fitopatología</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Rev. mex. fitopatol</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">0185-3309</issn>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2007-8080</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedad Mexicana de Fitopatología A.C.</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.18781/R.MEX.FIT.2023-6</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artículo Científico</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>El género <italic>Orthotospovirus</italic> en Costa Rica: Un caso centroamericano</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Montero-Astúa*,</surname>
						<given-names>Mauricio</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Dejuk-Protti,</surname>
						<given-names>Natasha</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Bermúdez-Gómez,</surname>
						<given-names>David</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Céspedes,</surname>
						<given-names>Elena Vásquez</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Sandoval-Carvajal,</surname>
						<given-names>Izayana</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Garita-Salazar,</surname>
						<given-names>Laura</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Albertazzi,</surname>
						<given-names>Federico J.</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Adkins,</surname>
						<given-names>Scott</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Moreira-Carmona,</surname>
						<given-names>Lisela</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>5</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="original"> Centro de Investigación en Biología Celular y Molecular (CIBCM), Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR), 11501-2060 San José, Costa Rica; Escuela de Agronomía, Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR), 11501-2060 San José, Costa Rica; </institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR)</institution>
				<country country="CR">Costa Rica</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="original"> Centro de Investigación en Biología Celular y Molecular (CIBCM), Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR), 11501-2060 San José, Costa Rica; Escuela de Agronomía, Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR), 11501-2060 San José, Costa Rica; </institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR)</institution>
				<country country="CR">Costa Rica</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>3</label>
				<institution content-type="original"> Centro de Investigación en Biología Celular y Molecular (CIBCM), Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR) y Escuela de Biología, Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR), 11501-2060 San José, Costa Rica; Escuela de Agronomía, Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR), 11501-2060 San José, Costa Rica;;</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR)</institution>
				<country country="CR">Costa Rica</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4">
				<label>4</label>
				<institution content-type="original"> USDA-ARS, Fort Pierce, FL 34945, US; </institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">USDA-ARS</institution>
				<country country="US">US</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff5">
				<label>5</label>
				<institution content-type="original"> Centro de Investigación en Biología Celular y Molecular (CIBCM), Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR), y Escuela de Agronomía, Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR), 11501-2060 San José, Costa Rica; Escuela de Agronomía, Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR), 11501-2060 San José, Costa Rica;.</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR)</institution>
				<country country="CR">Costa Rica</country>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1">
					<label><italic>*</italic></label><bold>
 <italic>Autor de correspondencia</italic>:</bold> Mauricio Montero-Astúa <email>mauricio.monteroastua@ucr.ac.cr</email>
				</corresp>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>28</day>
				<month>12</month>
				<year>2023</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<year>2023</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>41</volume>
			<issue>4</issue>
			<elocation-id>RMEXFIT20236</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>23</day>
					<month>08</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>10</day>
					<month>12</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
					<license-p>Este es un artículo publicado en acceso abierto bajo una licencia Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumen</title>
				<p> </p>
				<sec>
					<title>Objetivo/Antecedentes. </title>
					<p>El género <italic>Orthotospovirus</italic>, conocido por impacto significativo en una variedad de cultivos de importancia global, se manifiesta en virus emergentes con plantas económicamente perjudiciales. Aunque estos virus fitopatógenos están bien documentados en América del Norte y del Sur, su presencia y dinámica en América Central, particularmente en Costa Rica, un punto crítico entre los dos continentes, siguen siendo menos comprendidos. El objetivo de este trabajo fue determinar la prevalencia de los orthotospovirus en Costa Rica y obtener secuencias parciales del genoma para analizar la variabilidad genética.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Materiales y Métodos. </title>
					<p>El estudio consistió en un análisis exhaustivo de 295 muestras de plantas utilizando el ensayo de inmunoadsorción ligado a enzimas (ELISA), una técnica sensible para detectar antígenos específicos, para evaluar la prevalencia de INSV, IYSV, TSWV y el serogrupo GRSV/TCSV. Una caracterización molecular más profunda de 20 muestras se realizó mediante la reacción en cadena de la polimerasa con transcripción inversa (RT-PCR), utilizando cebadores tanto de amplio espectro como específicos de especie para aumentar la precisión de la detección.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Resultados. </title>
					<p>Los resultados de ELISA revelaron la no detección de TSWV y el serogrupo GRSV/TCSV, divergiendo de informes de diagnóstico previos. La confirmación de INSV en Costa Rica a través de ELISA, RT-PCR y secuenciación parcial subraya su prevalencia tanto en campos abiertos como en invernaderos. A pesar de los informes diagnósticos anteriores que sugerían la presencia de TSWV en Costa Rica, nuestro estudio no detectó este virus. El análisis RT-PCR con cebadores degenerados tampoco encontró evidencia de otras especies de orthotospovirus en nuestras muestras. La identificación de un haplotipo dominante de INSV, junto con tres variantes adicionales, sugiere la probabilidad de al menos dos introducciones independientes del virus en la región.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Conclusión. </title>
					<p>Estos hallazgos subrayan la necesidad de realizar muestreos e investigaciones más exhaustivas sobre los orthotospovirus en América Central para comprender mejor su epidemiología e impacto en la agricultura.</p>
				</sec>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
				<title>Palabras clave:</title>
				<kwd>síntomas virales</kwd>
				<kwd>ELISA</kwd>
				<kwd>RT-PCR</kwd>
				<kwd>diversidad genética</kwd>
				<kwd>INSV</kwd>
				<kwd>IYSV<bold>.</bold></kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="10"/>
				<table-count count="8"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="49"/>
				<page-count count="0"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introducción</title>
			<p>El género <italic>Orthotospovirus</italic> (familia <italic>Tospoviridae</italic>, orden <italic>Bunyavirales</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Kuhn <italic>et al.</italic>, 2022</xref>) representa un grupo emergente de virus con una distribución global que afecta a diversas especies de plantas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Pappu <italic>et al</italic>., 2009</xref>). Los miembros de este género han ampliado su distribución o ámbito de hospederos vegetales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Londoño <italic>et al.,</italic> 2012</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Naidu <italic>et al.,</italic> 2005</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Webster <italic>et al.,</italic> 2015</xref>). Varias especies de orthotospovirus son reconocidas como patógenos vegetales económicamente significativos, limitando la producción de cultivos o afectando la calidad del rendimiento. Por ejemplo, diversos informes mencionan pérdidas de rendimiento de hasta el 100 % y pérdidas económicas que oscilan entre decenas de miles hasta millones de dólares estadounidenses (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Daughtrey <italic>et al.,</italic> 1997</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Hasegawa y Del Pozo-Valdivia, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Mandal <italic>et al.,</italic> 2012</xref>).</p>
			<p>El género <italic>Orthotospovirus</italic> comprende 26 especies aceptadas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Kuhn <italic>et al.,</italic> 2022</xref>). El virus de la marchitez manchada del jitomate (<italic>Tomato spotted wilt virus</italic>, TSWV) es la especie tipo y ocasiona un alto impacto económico en diversos cultivos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Pappu <italic>et al.,</italic> 2009</xref>). Otra especie significativa dentro del género es el virus de la mancha necrótica del impatiens (<italic>Impatiens necrotic spot virus</italic>, INSV) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Daughtrey <italic>et al.,</italic> 1997</xref>). Históricamente, INSV fue inicialmente reconocido como un serotipo distinto de TSWV, identificado como TSWV-I (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">De Ávila <italic>et al.,</italic> 1992</xref>). También es destacable el virus de la mancha amarilla del iris (<italic>Iris yellow spot virus</italic>, IYSV), un orthotospovirus de origen eurasiático que se ha convertido en una limitación en la producción de bulbos y semillas de cebolla, extendiéndose rápidamente por todo el mundo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Bag <italic>et al.,</italic> 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Gent <italic>et al.,</italic> 2006</xref>).</p>
			<p>A pesar de la extensa investigación sobre la biología, manejo e interacción de los orthotospovirus con los trips vectores (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Montero-Astúa <italic>et al.,</italic> 2016</xref>), la información sobre la ocurrencia y los datos de secuencias es bastante limitada en todos los países de América Central. En Costa Rica, durante principios de la década de 1990, TSWV e INSV (entonces TSWV-I) fueron identificados mediante serología en plantas de impatiens (<italic>Impatiens</italic> spp.) y lisianteo (<italic>Eustoma</italic> sp.) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Hsu y Lawson, 1991</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Rivera <italic>et al.,</italic> 1990</xref>). IYSV fue reportado en Guatemala (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Nischwitz <italic>et al.,</italic> 2007</xref>) y Costa Rica (Montero-Astúa <italic>et al.,</italic> 2017). Además de estas publicaciones científicas, se encontró información (publicaciones locales, tesis o informes de proyectos institucionales disponibles en línea) sobre la presencia de TSWV en Guatemala y Honduras (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Cumes Mantanico, 2008</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Dardón <italic>et al.,</italic> 1994</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Doyle <italic>et al.,</italic> 2002</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Espinoza Rivera, 2012</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Palmieri, 2012</xref>), aunque no se hallaron datos de secuencias de aislamientos de TSWV de América Central en bases de datos públicas.</p>
			<p>A diferencia de la situación en América Central, varios informes han actualizado la presencia de orthotospovirus en las islas del Caribe. Se han registrado brotes del virus de la mancha clorótica del jitomate (<italic>Tomato chlorotic spot virus</italic>, TCSV), una especie diferente de orthotospovirus descrita originalmente en Brasil (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">De Ávila <italic>et al.,</italic> 1993</xref>), en toda la cuenca del Caribe: Cuba (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Martinez-Zubiaur <italic>et al.,</italic> 2016</xref>), República Dominicana (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Almeida <italic>et al.,</italic> 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Batuman <italic>et al.,</italic> 2014</xref>), Haití (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Adegbola <italic>et al.,</italic> 2016</xref>), Puerto Rico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">De Jensen y Adkins, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Webster <italic>et al.,</italic> 2013</xref>); y adicionalmente en Florida (EE.UU.) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Londoño <italic>et al.,</italic> 2012</xref>; Webster <italic>et al.,</italic> 2015). Además, se confirmó la presencia de TSWV mediante RT-PCR en la República Dominicana en 2013 (Martínez <italic>et al.,</italic> 2014).</p>
			<p>La obtención de datos de secuencias de orthotospovirus es esencial en todas las regiones geográficas y en diversos hospederos vegetales por tres razones fundamentales: (i) analizar la diversidad viral a nivel global, (ii) identificar aislamientos genéticamente distintos y (iii) contribuir a la comprensión epidemiológica. Esta información resulta crítica para los programas de mejora de cultivos y de resistencia a enfermedades. Por ejemplo, existen aislamientos de TSWV que pueden superar la resistencia conferida por los genes Sw-5 y Tsw en plantas de tomate (<italic>Solanum lycopersicum</italic>) y pimiento (<italic>Capsicum annuum</italic>), respectivamente. Conocer los aislamientos presentes en una zona y realizar comparaciones de secuencias para identificar las mutaciones que permiten romper la resistencia son aportes vitales para los programas de mejora genética (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Batuman <italic>et al.,</italic> 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Sharman y Persley, 2006</xref>). En este contexto, el objetivo de este trabajo fue determinar la prevalencia de los orthotospovirus en Costa Rica y obtener secuencias parciales del genoma para analizar la variabilidad genética. Esta información actualiza la presencia y variabilidad de estos virus vegetales en América Central. Llevamos a cabo un estudio mediante ensayo inmunoenzimático (ELISA) de plantas con síntomas similares a los causados por virus, con el fin de aumentar las posibilidades de detectar orthotospovirus. Un subconjunto de muestras positivas en ELISA fue posteriormente examinado mediante reacción en cadena de la polimerasa con transcriptasa inversa (RT-PCR).</p>
			<p>No se detectaron plantas positivas para TSWV en nuestras muestras. Por lo tanto, también realizamos un análisis longitudinal de la detección de TSWV e INSV en Costa Rica basado en informes del diagnóstico clínico del Laboratorio de Patógenos Vegetales Obligatorios y sus Vectores (LaFOV), Centro de Investigación en Biología Celular y Molecular (CIBCM), Universidad de Costa Rica, disponibles desde el año 2000. Este estudio proporciona una actualización fundamental sobre la presencia y variabilidad de los orthotospovirus en Costa Rica, contribuyendo a una comprensión más amplia de estos virus en América Central. Los hallazgos sugieren un cambio en la prevalencia de los virus y destacan la importancia de mantener una vigilancia y una investigación continuas. Los esfuerzos futuros deben centrarse en estudios detallados de vigilancia y genéticos para gestionar de manera más efectiva estos virus vegetales y abordar los desafíos agrícolas.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="materials|methods">
			<title>Materiales y Métodos</title>
			<p>Metodología de recolección de muestras. Recopilamos un total de 295 muestras de plantas que representan 20 familias botánicas diferentes (como se detalla en el <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Cuadro 1</xref>). Estas muestras se obtuvieron de 47 ubicaciones independientes, que incluyeron campos, invernaderos, parques y jardines en cinco de las siete provincias de Costa Rica. Nuestros objetivos principales para el análisis mediante Ensayo Inmunoenzimático (ELISA) fueron INSV, IYSV, TSWV y el serogrupo compuesto por el virus del anillo de la mancha del maní (GRSV) y el virus de la mancha clorótica del tomate (TCSV). El período de recolección abarcó desde 2013 hasta 2014, y las muestras se obtuvieron principalmente de agricultores que las enviaron al laboratorio de diagnóstico debido a la manifestación de síntomas virales en sus plantas. Además, se realizaron visitas proactivas a campos, invernaderos, jardines o parques con antecedentes conocidos de ocurrencia de orthotospovirus o informes de plantas sintomáticas. Los síntomas observados que motivaron la recopilación de muestras incluyeron patrones de mosaico, anillos concéntricos o líneas cloróticas o necróticas, deformación de hojas, superficie irregular de hojas o frutos (como ampollas o arrugas) y enanismo. En nuestro proceso de selección, se prestó especial atención a especies de plantas conocidas como hospederas de estos virus, como tomates, cebollas y pimientos. Estos cultivos hortícolas estuvieron más representados en nuestro conjunto de muestras debido a su importancia agrícola y a la mayor probabilidad de detectar los virus de interés en ellos. Además de éstos, también se incluyeron en nuestro estudio plantas ornamentales y diversas especies hortícolas para ofrecer una visión integral de la presencia y diversidad de orthotospovirus en Costa Rica.</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t1">
					<label>Cuadro 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Muestras recolectadas en cinco provincias de Costa Rica para analizar la presencia de especies de <italic>Orthotospovirus.</italic></title>
					</caption>
					<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Familia de planta</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">N° muestras / provincia<sup>z</sup></th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Total muestras</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">N° Sitios</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">IDs muestras</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Tejido</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td>Amaryllidaceae</td>
								<td>2 A, 23 C, 17 SJ</td>
								<td>42</td>
								<td>13</td>
								<td>T161-T163, T170-T175, T177-T180, T182, T183, T192, T195-T199, T283-T285, T288-T296, T298-T301, T305, T316, T317, T321</td>
								<td>Hoja</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Anacardiaceae</td>
								<td>1 SJ</td>
								<td>1</td>
								<td>1</td>
								<td>T335</td>
								<td>Fruto</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Apocynaceae</td>
								<td>1 A, 5 C</td>
								<td>6</td>
								<td>3</td>
								<td>T076, T159, T241, T346-T348</td>
								<td>Hoja</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Asparagaceae</td>
								<td>1 A</td>
								<td>1</td>
								<td>1</td>
								<td>T329</td>
								<td>Hoja</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Asteraceae</td>
								<td>0.25</td>
								<td>6</td>
								<td>2</td>
								<td>T051, T053, T325-T328</td>
								<td>Hoja</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Balsaminaceae</td>
								<td>4 A, 3 C</td>
								<td>7</td>
								<td>2</td>
								<td>T028-T031, T061, T261, T262</td>
								<td>Hoja</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Caricaceae</td>
								<td>5 P</td>
								<td>5</td>
								<td>1</td>
								<td>T330-T334</td>
								<td>Fruto</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Cucurbitaceae</td>
								<td>7 A, 3 C, 1 G, 9 P</td>
								<td>20</td>
								<td>8</td>
								<td>T035-T037, T046-, T047, T080, T090, T091, T160, T268, T270, T280, T135-T140, T265, T266</td>
								<td>Hoja</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Fabaceae</td>
								<td>4 A, 2 C, 1 SJ</td>
								<td>7</td>
								<td>5</td>
								<td>T034, T079, T118, T124, T148, T243, T258</td>
								<td>Hoja</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Gentianaceae</td>
								<td>3 C</td>
								<td>3</td>
								<td>1</td>
								<td>T322-T324</td>
								<td>Hoja</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Iridaceae</td>
								<td>4 C</td>
								<td>4</td>
								<td>1</td>
								<td>T184-T187</td>
								<td>Hoja</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Lamiaceae</td>
								<td>3 C</td>
								<td>3</td>
								<td>1</td>
								<td>T156-T158</td>
								<td>Hoja</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Liliaceae</td>
								<td>2 C</td>
								<td>2</td>
								<td>1</td>
								<td>T188-T189</td>
								<td>Hoja</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Malvaceae</td>
								<td>3 A, 1 G, 1 SJ</td>
								<td>5</td>
								<td>3</td>
								<td>T066-T068, T081, T350</td>
								<td>Hoja</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Orchidaceae</td>
								<td>18 A, 27 C</td>
								<td>45</td>
								<td>2</td>
								<td>T012-T027, T055, T056, T214-T240</td>
								<td>Hoja</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Oxalidaceae</td>
								<td>2 A</td>
								<td>2</td>
								<td>1</td>
								<td>T120, T121</td>
								<td>Hoja</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Plantaginaceae</td>
								<td>2 C</td>
								<td>2</td>
								<td>1</td>
								<td>T057, T058</td>
								<td>Hoja</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Rosaceae</td>
								<td>2 A</td>
								<td>2</td>
								<td>1</td>
								<td>T128, T131</td>
								<td>Hoja</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Solanaceae</td>
								<td>71 A, 37 C, 11 P, 12 SJ</td>
								<td>131</td>
								<td/>
								<td>T001-T011, T032, T033, T038-T045, T048-T050, T054, T059-T060, T062-T065, T069-T075, T077, T078, T082-T089, T092-T104, T106-T112, T114-T116, T119, T122, T134, T165-T169, T176, T181, T194, T202-T205, T209-T213, T245-T251, T253, T263, T264, T267, T271-T279, T302-T304, T306-T313, T320, T336-T338, T341-T345</td>
								<td>Hoja y/o Fruto</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="border-bottom:1px solid #000;">Zingiberaceae</td>
								<td style="border-bottom:1px solid #000;">1 A</td>
								<td style="border-bottom:1px solid #000;">1</td>
								<td style="border-bottom:1px solid #000;">1</td>
								<td style="border-bottom:1px solid #000;">T339</td>
								<td style="border-bottom:1px solid #000;">Hoja</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN1">
							<p>z Provincias muestreadas; A, Alajuela; C, Cartago; G, Guanacaste; P, Puntarenas; SJ, San José.</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>Preparación de muestras y detección ELISA. Para la detección de INSV, IYSV, TSWV y el serogrupo GRSV/TCSV, utilizamos reactivos comerciales de ELISA de Agdia, Elkhart, IN, siguiendo las instrucciones del fabricante. El proceso comenzó triturando aproximadamente 0.5 gramos de tejido vegetal en 1 mL de un tampón de extracción general. La composición de este tampón incluyó 136 mM de NaCl, 8 mM de Na2HPO4, 1.5 mM de KH2PO4, 2.7 mM de KCl, 10 mM de Na2SO3, 2 % (v/v) de Tween-20, 2 % (w/v) de Polivinilpirrolidona MW 40,000, 0.2 % (w/v)</p>
			<p>de albúmina de huevo de gallina y se ajustó el pH a 7.4. Cada muestra se preparó en tres réplicas y se almacenó a -35 °C hasta su uso en las pruebas de ELISA. Para el procedimiento de ELISA, las muestras se probaron en pozos duplicados. Cada placa incluía dos pozos de controles positivos comerciales certificados (Agdia) y cuatro pozos de controles negativos. La absorbancia se midió a 405 nm después de una hora y se extendió a dos horas específicamente para IYSV, utilizando un lector de microplacas Multiskan FC (Thermo Scientific, China). Una muestra se consideró positiva si su valor promedio de absorbancia era mayor que el doble del promedio de los pozos de control negativo correspondientes, según el criterio establecido por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Sutula <italic>et al.</italic> (1986</xref>). En casos de resultados dudosos, las muestras se volvieron a analizar siguiendo el mismo protocolo, pero utilizando un tampón de conjugado enzimático (tampón ECI, protocolo de Agdia) tanto con cómo sin la adición de un 5 % de leche en polvo descremada. Este paso se incluyó para mitigar los falsos positivos, un método respaldado por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Smith <italic>et al</italic>. (2006</xref>).</p>
			<p>Análisis longitudinal de la detección de INSV y TSWV en Costa Rica. Los informes del laboratorio de diagnóstico para la detección de INSV y TSWV en Costa Rica, realizados en el Laboratorio de Patógenos Vegetales Obligatorios y sus Vectores (LaFOV), Centro de Investigación en Biología Celular y Molecular (CIBCM), Universidad de Costa Rica, disponibles desde el año 2000, constituyen nuestra principal fuente de datos. Este período de 23.5 años de registros (de 2000 a julio de 2023) proporciona la visión más completa que tenemos sobre la frecuencia de detección de INSV y TSWV en el país. Las muestras enviadas al laboratorio de diagnóstico se dividen en dos categorías: (i) material vegetal asintomático destinado a la exportación, que requiere certificación fitosanitaria y probablemente está libre de virus, y (ii) material vegetal sintomático, generalmente enviado por agricultores y agentes de extensión, que probablemente esté infectado por virus, aunque no exclusivamente por orthotospovirus. Estos registros, que abarcan muestras tanto asintomáticas como sintomáticas de diversas dimensiones de fincas e invernaderos, ofrecen una estimación valiosa de la frecuencia relativa de la ocurrencia de virus en Costa Rica a lo largo de los años.</p>
			<p>Refinamiento de la detección del virus de la mancha necrótica de Impatiens mediante RT-PCR: Para mejorar la precisión de la identificación de INSV, llevamos a cabo un análisis específico mediante RT-PCR en 20 muestras que resultaron positivas para INSV mediante ELISA. Este análisis detallado incluyó el uso de cebadores tanto de ortotospovirus de amplio espectro como de cebadores específicos diseñados para INSV, según se detalla en <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Cuadro 2</xref> y <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>. El ARN se extrajo de cada muestra utilizando el RNeasy Plant Minikit (Qiagen, Alemania). Posteriormente, cuantificamos el ARN total utilizando un espectrofotómetro Na-</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t2">
					<label>Cuadro 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Pares de cebadores y perfiles térmicos usados para la detección de orthotospovirus.</title>
					</caption>
					<table>
						<colgroup>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th align="justify">Cebadores</th>
								<th align="justify">Secuencia 5’ a 3’</th>
								<th align="center">Tamaño de amplicón (bp)</th>
								<th align="center">Perfil térmico</th>
								<th align="justify" rowspan="2">Referencia</th>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<th align="center" colspan="4"><italic>Detección de Orthotospovirus (Varias especies)</italic></th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td align="justify">BR60 BR65</td>
								<td align="justify">CCCGGATCCTGCAGAGCAAATGTGTCA ATCAAGCCTTCTGAAAGTCAT</td>
								<td align="center"> 453</td>
								<td align="justify">95 °C x 1 min; 30 x (94 °C x 30 s, 48 °C x 1 min, 72 °C); 72 °C x 7 min</td>
								<td align="center">
									<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Eiras <italic>et al.,</italic>2001</xref>
								</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="justify">BR035 PDH006</td>
								<td align="justify">GAATATATGACACCATTG CCCAGAGCAATCAGTGCA</td>
								<td align="center"> 514</td>
								<td align="justify">95 °C x 1 min; 30 x (94 °C x 30 s, 48 °C x 1 min, 72 °C); 72 °C x 7 min</td>
								<td align="justify">
									<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Eiras <italic>et al</italic>., 2001</xref>
								</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="justify">NS1 CLA1</td>
								<td align="justify">CCCTGCAGGATCCAGAGCAATCAGTGCA GCAGGCTTCAATGAATGC</td>
								<td align="center"> 865</td>
								<td align="justify">95 °C x 1 min; 30 x (94 °C x 30 s, 48 °C x 1 min, 72 °C x 1 min); 72 °C x 7 min</td>
								<td align="justify">
									<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Eiras <italic>et al</italic>., 2001</xref>
								</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="justify">gM410 gM870c</td>
								<td align="justify">AACTGGAAAAATGATTYNYTTGTTGG ATTAGYTTGCAKGCTTCAATNAARGC</td>
								<td align="center"> 500</td>
								<td align="justify">95 °C x 1 min; 35 x (94 °C x 30 s, 52 °C x 30 s, 72 °C x 30 s); 72 °C x 10 min</td>
								<td align="justify">
									<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Chen <italic>et al</italic>., 2012</xref>
								</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="justify">gL2740 gL3920c</td>
								<td align="justify">ATGGGDATNTTTGATTTCATGRTATGC TCATGCTCATSAGRTAAATYTCTCT</td>
								<td align="center"> 1200</td>
								<td align="justify">95 °C x 2 min; 30 x (94 °C x 30 s, 50 °C x 30 s, 72 °C x 2 min); 72 °C x 5 min</td>
								<td align="justify">
									<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Chen <italic>et al</italic>., 2012</xref>
								</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="justify">gL3637 gL4435c</td>
								<td align="justify">CCTTTAACAGTDGAAACAT CATDGCRCAAGARTGRTARACAGA</td>
								<td align="center"> 810</td>
								<td align="justify">95 °C x 2 min; 30 x (94 °C x 30 s, 50 °C x 30 s, 72 °C x 2 min); 72 °C x 5 min</td>
								<td align="justify">
									<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Chu <italic>et al</italic>., 2001</xref>
								</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="justify">gL3637 gL4510c</td>
								<td align="justify">CCTTTAACAGTDGAAACAT TCATCRGARTGBACMATCCATCT</td>
								<td align="center"> 890</td>
								<td align="justify">95 °C x 2 min; 30 x (94 °C x 30 s, 50 °C x 30 s, 72 °C x 2 min); 72 °C x 5 min</td>
								<td align="justify" rowspan="2">
									<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Chu <italic>et al</italic>., 2001</xref>
								</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" colspan="4"><italic>Detección específica de INSV</italic></td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="justify">INSV-589 TOS-R15</td>
								<td align="justify">CCCAAGACACAGGATTTCA GGGAGAGCAATYGWGKYR</td>
								<td align="center"> 589</td>
								<td align="justify">95 °C x 2 min; 35 x (94 °C x 30 s, 54 °C x 30 s, 72 °C x 1 min); 72 °C x 5 min</td>
								<td align="justify" rowspan="2">
									<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Uga &amp; Tsuda, 2005</xref>
								</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" colspan="4"><italic>Subunidad 18S del ARN ribosómico de las plantas</italic></td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="justify">18S-F 18S-R</td>
								<td align="justify">TCTGCCCGTTGCTCTGATGAT CCTTGGATGTGGTAGCCGTTT</td>
								<td align="center"> 193</td>
								<td align="justify">95 °C x 1 min; 40 x (94 °C x 30 s, 55 °C x 30 s, 72 °C x 35 s); 72 °C x 5 min</td>
								<td align="justify">
									<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Zhu <italic>et al</italic>., 2012</xref>
								</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>noDrop 2000C UV-Vis (ThermoScientific, EE. UU.) para garantizar una concentración adecuada para los pasos siguientes. Luego, preparamos el cADN de hebra simple a partir de 5 µL del ARN extraído para cada muestra, logrando un volumen final de reacción de 20 µL. Esta síntesis se realizó utilizando el kit RevertAid H Minus First Strand cDNA Synthesis o el kit Maxima H Minus First Strand cDNA Synthesis (Thermo Scientific, Lituania), utilizando hexámeros aleatorios. El cADN sintetizado se almacenó a -35 °C para su conservación. Para asegurar la integridad del cADN y verificar posibles inhibidores de la amplificación o degradación del ARN, utilizamos cebadores que apuntaban a un fragmento de 193 pb de la subunidad ribosomal ARN 18S de plantas, que sirve como gen de referencia para estudios</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f1">
					<label>Figura 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Representación de las posiciones de anillamiento de los pares de cebadores en referencia al genoma completo de <italic>Impatiens necrotic spot virus</italic>; números de accesión entre paréntesis para cada segmento del genoma. Traslape entre cebadores y secuencias finales parciales obtenidas en esta investigación (rectángulos grises) con el tamaño esperado (pb). Los valores de pares de bases debajo de cada cebador representan las posiciones del primer y último nucleótido en el genoma de referencia del amplicon correspondiente.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-41-04-RMEXFIT20236-gf1.png"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>de expresión génica en plantas (citado de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Zhu <italic>et al.,</italic> 2012</xref>). Las mezclas de PCR, con un total de 25 µL cada una, incluyeron 2 µL del cADN sintetizado, 12.5 µL de DreamTaq PCR Master Mix 2X (Thermo Scientific) y 200 nM de cada cebador. Las condiciones exactas de termociclado para cada par de cebadores se ajustaron según las especificaciones indicadas en el <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Cuadro 2</xref>, utilizando termocicladores avanzados como PTC-200 (MJ Research, Canadá), MJ Mini (BioRad, Singapur) y Corbett Research CG1-96 (Corbett Life Science, Australia). Después de la PCR, los productos se visualizaron en un transiluminador de luz UV (55W, BXT-26M, Uvitec, Francia). Esto se hizo después de la electroforesis en un gel de agarosa al 1 % con tampón TAE 1X, y el gel se tiñó con GelRed 10000X (Biotium Inc., EE.UU.) incorporado en el tampón de carga (6X Thermo Scientific) para una visualización óptima. Para capturar una instantánea genética completa, se emplearon varios pares de cebadores para secuenciar diferentes segmentos del genoma de <italic>orthotospovirus</italic>: pequeño (S), mediano (M) y grande (L). Este enfoque, que a veces implicaba amplicones superpuestos (como se muestra en la <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>), nos permitió obtener secuencias parciales de cuatro ORFs distintos de orthotospovirus (ilustrados en la <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>): el segmento S(N), el segmento M(NSM), el segmento M(G) y el segmento L(L). Estas secuencias abarcan regiones críticas como la nucleocápside, la proteína de movimiento, el precursor de la glicoproteína y la ARN polimerasa dependiente del ARN, ofreciendo una comprensión más profunda de la estructura genética del virus.</p>
			<sec>
				<title>Análisis del virus de la mancha necrótica de Impatiens: secuenciación y construcción de redes de haplotipos</title>
				<p>Proceso de secuenciación. Se realizó la secuenciación directa de todos los amplicones derivados del subconjunto seleccionado de 20 muestras, previamente identificadas como positivas para INSV mediante ELISA. Esta secuenciación, realizada en direcciones tanto hacia adelante como hacia atrás, empleó los mismos pares de cebadores utilizados en las amplificaciones por PCR. Macrogen Inc. (Corea) fue responsable de la purificación y secuenciación de estos productos de PCR. Las secuencias resultantes se ensamblaron cuidadosamente y se editaron meticulosamente utilizando el software BioEdit (versión 7.2.5). Las secuencias obtenidas se archivaron en la base de datos GenBank, un repositorio mantenido por el Instituto Nacional de Salud. Nuestra estrategia para analizar las relaciones filogenéticas de INSV implicó la obtención de secuencias representativas de diversas ubicaciones geográficas y plantas hospederas de GenBank. Empleamos una estrategia de búsqueda específica centrada en “Impatiens necrotic spot”, categorizando las secuencias por sus respectivos segmentos genómicos: S, M y L. Se construyeron árboles filogenéticos iniciales para cada una de las regiones genómicas amplificadas: S(N), M(NSM), M(G) y L(L). Esta fase incluyó la incorporación de secuencias relevantes disponibles en GenBank. Los modelos de sustitución de ADN se seleccionaron meticulosamente para ajustarse a nuestros análisis filogenéticos, que ejecutamos utilizando el software MEGA X (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Kumar <italic>et al.,</italic> 2018</xref>). Sin embargo, las construcciones filogenéticas iniciales no revelaron patrones de agrupación definitivos ni robustos. En nuestra búsqueda de una comprensión más detallada de la diversidad de INSV a escala global, alineamos las secuencias S(N) de nuestro estudio con 81 secuencias de INSV recuperadas de GenBank, centrándonos en un segmento de 261 pb del ORF N. Esta alineación se llevó a cabo utilizando el algoritmo MUSCLE y se perfeccionó recortando los sobresalientes de las secuencias para garantizar uniformidad. Con el software DnaSP6 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Rozas <italic>et al.,</italic> 2017</xref>), realizamos una determinación exhaustiva de haplotipos y un análisis de población en este conjunto de datos, que abarcó 79 aislados (excluyendo dos debido a datos geográficos faltantes). Las secuencias se categorizaron cuidadosamente por países o regiones para un análisis detallado. Para visualizar las relaciones genéticas y variaciones entre estos aislados de INSV, construimos una red de haplotipos. Esto se logró utilizando el software PopART (Análisis Poblacional con Árboles Reticulados, <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://popart/">http://popart.</ext-link> otago.ac.nz), aplicando el método de inferencia de red TCS (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Clement <italic>et al.,</italic> 2000</xref>) para mapear las conexiones intrincadas entre los diversos haplotipos. En un análisis posterior más detallado, alineamos y concatenamos diferentes regiones del genoma de INSV que se amplificaron y secuenciaron con éxito en la misma muestra. Este análisis incluyó doce muestras de Costa Rica (donde se obtuvieron datos de secuencia para las cuatro regiones objetivo) y cinco muestras internacionales de INSV con genomas completos disponibles. La alineación integral, que abarcaba 2,945 posiciones, se sometió a un análisis de Máxima Verosimilitud utilizando un modelo Tamura de 3 parámetros con variación de tasa distribuida gamma (+G), y este proceso involucró 2,000 permutaciones en el software MEGA X. Los análisis se llevaron a cabo para todos los segmentos genómicos, tanto como sin la inclusión del virus de la mancha anular del tomate (TSWV) como grupo externo, utilizando sus secuencias de referencia (S: NC_002051; M: NC_002050; y L: NC_002052) con fines comparativos.</p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="results">
			<title>Resultados</title>
			<p>Análisis ELISA y síntomas observados. Las pruebas de ELISA identificaron INSV e IYSV en las muestras, siendo INSV relativamente común en Costa Rica (58 de 295 muestras). Notablemente, no se detectaron TSWV y el serogrupo que comprende GRSV y TCSV. INSV se encontró en 12 de las 39 especies de plantas evaluadas, incluyendo pimiento (<italic>Capsicum annuum</italic>), cebolla (<italic>Allium cepa</italic>), tomate (<italic>Solanum lycopersicum</italic>) e iris (<italic>Iris</italic> sp.), que tuvo el mayor número de muestras positivas (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Cuadro 3</xref>). Los síntomas comunes asociados con INSV incluyeron anillos y manchas cloróticas o necróticas, así como patrones de anillos cloróticos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>). IYSV se detectó exclusivamente en 10 muestras de hojas de cebolla.</p>
			<p>Análisis longitudinal de la aparición de TSWV e INSV. Nuestra investigación sobre la presencia histórica del virus del marchitamiento moteado del jitomate (TSWV) y el virus de la mancha necrótica de la impatiens (INSV) en Costa Rica fue motivada por la ausencia de TSWV en nuestros estudios recientes de muestras y por el hecho de que las únicas ocurrencias documentadas de TSWV en el país se informaron en 1990 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Rivera <italic>et al.,</italic> 1990</xref>) y 1991 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Hsu and Lawson, 1991</xref>). Para profundizar en este asunto, se revisó los datos de los registros de servicios de la clínica de diagnóstico desde el año 2000 hasta julio de 2023. Estos registros consistieron principalmente en plantas ornamentales destinadas a la exportación o importación, pero también incluyeron muestras hortícolas de cultivadores que abarcaban desde pequeña hasta gran escala. Se analizaron un total de 1,027 muestras para TSWV y 1,889 para INSV. De estas, 43 muestras (4.2%) resultaron positivas para TSWV, y 290 muestras (15.4%) para INSV, según se determinó mediante DAS-ELISA utilizando anticuerpos comerciales (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Cuadro 3</xref>). Es destacable que entre 2008 y 2010, el número anual de muestras positivas para INSV superó las 50. En contraste, la cantidad de muestras positivas para TSWV se mantuvo por debajo de diez cada año. Después de 2015, la frecuencia de detección de ambos virus disminuyó significativamente. A lo largo de los 23.5 años abordados en el análisis, TSWV se detectó solo en 11 años, mientras que INSV se detectó en 17 años, como se muestra en la <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>. Esta tendencia destaca los cambios en los patrones de prevalencia viral y subraya la necesidad de una vigilancia continua.</p>
			<p>Confirmación por RT-PCR de la aparición de INSV. Los análisis de RT-PCR confirmaron la presencia de INSV en nueve taxones de plantas diferentes: <italic>Antirrhinum majus</italic>, <italic>Capsicum annuum</italic>, <italic>Hippeastrum</italic>, <italic>Impatiens</italic>, <italic>Iris</italic>, <italic>Ocimum basilicum</italic>, <italic>Plectranthus scuttellarioides</italic>, <italic>Solanum lycopersicum</italic> y el híbrido artificial de orquídea Bakerara. Todas las especies de plantas que resultaron positivas para INSV mediante ELISA también arrojaron resultados positivos en pruebas de RT-PCR utilizando al menos dos pares de cebadores diferentes, seguidos de secuenciación (como se muestra en la <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref> y la <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Cuadro 4</xref>). Excepciones a esto incluyeron <italic>Browallia</italic> sp., <italic>Eustoma</italic> sp. y muestras de cebolla. Las plantas de <italic>Browallia</italic> y <italic>Eustoma</italic>, lamentablemente, se marchitaron y murieron en nuestro invernadero antes de que pudiéramos recolectar muestras de tejido para la extracción de ARN, impidiendo su prueba mediante RT-PCR. Además, las muestras de cebolla no fueron sometidas a pruebas de RT-PCR, ya que la presencia de IYSV en estas muestras ya</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f2">
					<label>Figura 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Síntomas diversos del virus del anillado necrótico de la impatiens (INSV) en múltiples huéspedes confirmados por ELISA, RT-PCR y secuenciación parcial. A: Anillos concéntricos necróticos en Impatiens (<italic>Impatiens</italic> sp.) T031. B, C: Anillos y manchas cloróticas en Boca de Dragón (<italic>Antirrhinum majus</italic>) T057. D: Estrías cloróticas y necróticas en hojas de orquídea T024. E, F: Mosaico clorótico en Amarilis (<italic>Hippeastrum</italic> sp.) T161 e Iris (<italic>Iris</italic> sp.) T184. G: Anillos concéntricos necróticos en Coleo (<italic>Plectranthus scuttellarioides</italic>) T157. H: Patrones cloróticos en Albahaca (<italic>Ocimum basilicum</italic>) T156. I, M: Patrones de anillos concéntricos cloróticos en hojas de Pimiento Dulce (<italic>Capsicum annuum</italic>) T250 y T092. J, K, L: Maduración irregular, patrones de anillos y deformación en frutos de Pimiento Dulce T092, T107, T094. N, O: Patrones cloróticos, anillos y superficie irregular en frutos de Tomate (<italic>Solanum lycopersicum</italic>) T263 y T303.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-41-04-RMEXFIT20236-gf2.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t3">
					<label>Cuadro 3</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Número total de muestras positivas por especie vegetal evaluadas por la técnica de ELISA para detectar tres orthotospovirus en Costa Rica.</title>
					</caption>
					<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th rowspan="2" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Hospedante (Nombre común)</th>
								<th rowspan="2" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">No. de muestras</th>
								<th colspan="4" style="border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">No de muestras positivas<sup>y</sup></th>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">INSV</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">IYSV</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">TSWV</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">GRSV/ TCSV</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td colspan="6" style="font-weight:bold; font-style: italic;">Amaryllidaceae</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Allium cepa (cebolla)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">38</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">6</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">10</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Allium sativum (ajo)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">2</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Hippeastrum sp.(“amarilis”)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">1</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">1</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Tulbaghia violaceae (ajillo)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">1</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td colspan="6" style="font-weight:bold; font-style: italic;">Anacardiaceae</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Spondias purpurea (jocote)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">1</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td colspan="6" style="font-weight:bold; font-style: italic;">Apocynaceae</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Mandevilla sp. (dipladenia)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">1</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Trachelospermum jasminoides (jazmin estrella)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">1</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Cataranthus roseus (vinca)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">4</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td colspan="6" style="font-weight:bold; font-style: italic;">Asparagaceae</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Ornithogalum sp. (estrella de Belén)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">1</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td colspan="6" style="font-weight:bold; font-style: italic;">Asteraceae</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Lactuca sativa (lechuga)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">6</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td colspan="6" style="font-weight:bold; font-style: italic;">Balsaminaceae</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Impatiens sp. (impatiens)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">7</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">3</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td colspan="6" style="font-weight:bold; font-style: italic;">Caricaceae</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Carica papaya (papaya)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">5</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td colspan="6" style="font-weight:bold; font-style: italic;">Cucurbitaceae</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Citrullus lanatus (sandía)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">2</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Cucumis melo (melón)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">13</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Cucumis sativus (pepino)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">1</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Cucurbita pepo (calabaza, zucchini)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">2</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Sechium edule (chayote)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">1</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Sechium tacaco (tacaco)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">1</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td colspan="6" style="font-weight:bold; font-style: italic;">Fabaceae</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Arachis pintoi (frijol pinto)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">3</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Phaseolus vulgaris (frijol)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">4</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td colspan="6" style="font-weight:bold; font-style: italic;">Gentianaceae</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Eustoma sp. (lisianthus)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">3</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">3</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td colspan="6" style="font-weight:bold; font-style: italic;">Iridaceae</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Iris sp. (iris)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">4</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">4</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td colspan="6" style="font-weight:bold; font-style: italic;">Lamiaceae</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Ocimum basilicum (albahaca)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">1</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">1</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Plectranthus scuttellarioides (coleo)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">2</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">2</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td colspan="6" style="font-weight:bold; font-style: italic;">Liliaceae</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Lilium sp. (lirios)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">2</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td colspan="6" style="font-weight:bold; font-style: italic;">Malvaceae</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Gossypium hirsutum (algodón)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">1</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Hibiscus sp. (hibiscus)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">4</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td colspan="6" style="font-weight:bold; font-style: italic;">Orchidaceae</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Several species and hybridsz (orquidea)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">45</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">1</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td colspan="6" style="font-weight:bold; font-style: italic;">Oxalidaceae</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Oxalis sp.</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">2</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td colspan="6" style="font-weight:bold; font-style: italic;">Plantaginaceae</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Antirrhinum majus (boca de dragón)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">2</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">2</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td colspan="6" style="font-weight:bold; font-style: italic;">Rosaceae</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Fragaria x ananassa (fresa)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">2</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td colspan="6" style="font-weight:bold; font-style: italic;">Solanaceae</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Browallia sp. (violeta de arbusto)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">2</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">1</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Calibrachoa sp. (calibracoa)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">4</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Capsicum annuum (pimiento, chile dulce)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">68</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">30</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Petunia sp. (petunia)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">14</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Solanum lycopersicum (jitomate)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">37</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">4</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Solanum melongena (berenjena)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">1</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Solanum quitoense (naranjilla, lulo)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">1</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Solanum tuberosum (papa)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">4</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td colspan="6" style="font-weight:bold; font-style: italic;">Zingiberaceae</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Hedychium sp.</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">1</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; font-weight:bold;">Total</td>
								<td style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; font-weight:bold; text-align:center;">295</td>
								<td style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; font-weight:bold; text-align:center;">58</td>
								<td style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; font-weight:bold; text-align:center;">10</td>
								<td style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; font-weight:bold; text-align:center;">0</td>
								<td style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; font-weight:bold; text-align:center;">0</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN2">
							<p>yMuestras que se probaron para detectar: <italic>Impatiens necrotic spot virus</italic> (INSV), <italic>Iris yellow spot virus</italic> (IYSV), <italic>Tomato spotted wilt virus</italic> (TSWV) o el serogrupo <italic>Groundnut ring spot virus</italic>/<italic>Tomato chlorosis spot virus</italic> (GRST/ TCSV).</p>
						</fn>
						<fn id="TFN3">
							<p>z Las muestras de orquídeas incluían diferentes géneros e híbridos, por lo que se enumeran conjuntamente como familia Orchidaceae. La muestra positiva correspondía a una planta del género híbrido <italic>Bakerara</italic>.</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>se había confirmado en un estudio anterior (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Montero-Astúa <italic>et al.,</italic> 2017</xref>). En total, obtuvimos y editamos con éxito 72 secuencias parciales finales o contigs. Estas incluyeron 18 secuencias cada una para los genes de la nucleocápside y la proteína de movimiento, 20 para el gen del precursor de la glicoproteína y 16 para el gen de la ARN polimerasa dependiente de ARN viral (RdRp). Todas estas secuencias se han enviado a GenBank y se documentan en la <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Cuadro 4</xref>.</p>
			<p>Análisis de red de haplotipos. En el análisis filogenético inicial de las secuencias de S(N), M(NSM), M(G) y L(L) de INSV, incluyendo secuencias de otros países, observamos la falta de conglomerados bien definidos (datos no mostrados). En consecuencia, dirigimos nuestra atención a un análisis de haplotipos del conjunto de datos de secuencias de S(N). Este conjunto de datos comprendía un segmento de 261 pb del ORF de la nucleocápside de los aislamientos de INSV disponibles globalmente en GenBank, junto con las 18 secuencias que obtuvimos en este estudio (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 4</xref>). En nuestro análisis de red de haplotipos, identificamos cuatro haplotipos distintos de la secuencia parcial del ORF de la nucleocápside en Costa Rica.</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f3">
					<label>Figura 3</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Detección a largo plazo de los virus del anillado necrótico del Impatiens y del marchitamiento manchado del jitomate por ELISA. Este gráfico muestra la frecuencia de detección tanto del Virus del anillado necrótico de la Impatiens como del Virus del marchitamiento manchado del jitomate a lo largo de un período de 23.5 años (2000 a julio de 2023). Los datos, obtenidos de muestras enviadas a los servicios de diagnóstico del Centro de Investigación en Biología Celular y Molecular, Universidad de Costa Rica, ilustran las tendencias temporales y los patrones de ocurrencia de estos virus en Costa Rica.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-41-04-RMEXFIT20236-gf3.png"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>Entre ellos, un haplotipo destacó como predominante en el país, y curiosamente, también se encuentra en China, Japón, Europa y Corea. Los otros dos haplotipos, aunque menos prevalentes en Costa Rica, están más estrechamente relacionados con un haplotipo principal observado en Europa, Japón, Nueva Zelanda y Estados Unidos. Además, realizamos un análisis concatenado de cuatro regiones del ge-</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t4">
					<label>Cuadro 4</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Secuencias parciales nucleotídicas e identidad viral determinada para un subgrupo de muestras positivas por ELISA para INSV.</title>
					</caption>
					<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th rowspan="2" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Hospedante</th>
								<th rowspan="2" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">ID</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Sitio<sup>w</sup>, provincia</th>
								<th colspan="4" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Secuencia<sup>x</sup> identificación<sup>y</sup></th>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;"> </th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">S(N)</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">M(NS<sub>M</sub>)</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">M(G)</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">L(L)</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Antirrhinum majus</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">T057</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">D, Cartago</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH687991</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673625</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673643</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH487473</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Capsicum annuum</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">T092</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">N, Alajuela</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH687992</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673626</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673644</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH487474</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;"/>
								<td style="text-align:center;">T093</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">M, Alajuela</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH687993</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673627</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673645</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH487475</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;"/>
								<td style="text-align:center;">T094</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">M, Alajuela</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH687994</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673628</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673646</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH487476</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;"/>
								<td style="text-align:center;">T096</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">M, Alajuela</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH687995</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673629</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673647</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH487477</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;"/>
								<td style="text-align:center;">T107</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">N, Alajuela</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH687996</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673630</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673648</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH487479</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;"/>
								<td style="text-align:center;">T109</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">N, Alajuela</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH687997</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673631</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673649</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH487480</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;"/>
								<td style="text-align:center;">T245</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">II, Cartago</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH688003</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673638</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673657</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH487487</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;"/>
								<td style="text-align:center;">T250</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">II, Cartago</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH688004</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673639</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673658</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH487488</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;"/>
								<td style="text-align:center;">T251</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">II, Cartago</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH688005</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673640</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673659</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH487489</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Hippeastrum sp.</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">T161</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">D, Cartago</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH688001</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673635</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673653</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH487483</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Impatiens sp.</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">T031</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">C, Alajuela</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH687990</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673624</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673642</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH487472</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Iris sp.</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">T184</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">CC, Cartago</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">---<sup>z</sup></td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673636</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673654</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH487484</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;"/>
								<td style="text-align:center;">T186</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">CC, Cartago</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">--<sup>z</sup></td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673637</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673655</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH487486</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Ocimun basilicum</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">T156</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">D, Cartago</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH687998</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673632</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673650</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">--<sup>z</sup></td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Orchid</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">T024</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">B, Alajuela</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH687989</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673623</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673641</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">--<sup>z</sup></td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Plectranthus scuttellarioides</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">T157</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">D, Cartago</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH687999</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673633</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673651</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH487481</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">T158</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">D, Cartago</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH688000</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673634</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673652</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH487482</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">Solanum lycopersicum</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">T263</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">O, San José</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH688006</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">--<sup>z</sup></td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673660</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">--<sup>z</sup></td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style: italic;">T303</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">O, San José</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH688007</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">--<sup>z</sup></td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">MH673661</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">--<sup>z</sup></td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="border-bottom:1px solid #000;">Total (n)</td>
								<td style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; text-align:center;">20</td>
								<td style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; text-align:center;">8, 3</td>
								<td style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; text-align:center;">18</td>
								<td style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; text-align:center;">18</td>
								<td style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; text-align:center;">20</td>
								<td style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; text-align:center;">16</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN4">
							<p>w Códigos de letras diferentes distinguen campos independientes, invernaderos, parques o jardines.</p>
						</fn>
						<fn id="TFN5">
							<p>x Secuencias correspondientes a fragmentos parciales de los segmentos de genoma S, M y L de orthotospovirus obtenidas de uno o varios pares de cebadores (contiguo), como se muestra en la <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>. S(N), secuencia parcial del ORF de la nucleocápside y regiones 3’-UTR del segmento de genoma S. M(NSM), secuencia parcial del ORF de la proteína de movimiento (NSM). M(G), secuencia parcial del ORF del precursor de la glicoproteína. Y L(L), una región interna del ORF de la polimerasa (RdRp) en el segmento de genoma L.</p>
						</fn>
						<fn id="TFN6">
							<p>y Especies de virus vegetal determinadas por el primer resultado BLAST (GenBank, Centro Nacional de Información Biotecnológica, EE. UU.) y un porcentaje de identidad &gt;97%.</p>
						</fn>
						<fn id="TFN7">
							<p>z ---, no hay secuencia disponible porque: (i) no hubo amplificación en RT-PCR; alternativamente, (ii) se generó un amplicón pero la reacción de secuenciación falló (uno o ambos cebadores) o produjo solo una secuencia del hospedero vegetal (amplificación inespecífica).</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>noma (segmentos del genoma S, M y L) que amplificamos y secuenciamos. Este análisis incluyó 12 muestras de Costa Rica y cinco genomas de INSV disponibles en GenBank (ilustrados en la <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figura 5</xref>). Los resultados mostraron que las muestras de INSV de Costa Rica se agruparon juntas, claramente separadas de las secuencias de referencia. Es importante señalar que las estructuras de subgrupos de las muestras de Costa Rica se alinearon generalmente con sus lugares geográficos de origen. Este hallazgo indicó una mayor diversidad dentro de la población de INSV en Costa Rica en comparación con lo sugerido por la red de haplotipos. En el árbol</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f4">
					<label>Figura 4</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Gráfico de la Red de Haplotipos del Virus del anillado necrótico de la impatiens. Este gráfico representa una red de haplotipos inferida mediante el método TCS, basada en un alineamiento de secuencias de 261 bp del ORF de la proteína nucleocápside (segmento S[N]) del Virus del anillado necrótico de la impatiens. La red incluye datos de 81 aislados, representando visualmente las relaciones genéticas y la diversidad entre los diferentes haplotipos del virus.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-41-04-RMEXFIT20236-gf4.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>filogenético, las ramas y nodos delimitaron claramente las diferencias entre los 12 aislamientos costarricenses incluidos en nuestro estudio (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figura 5</xref>). Esta variación en la diversidad genética destaca la naturaleza compleja de la propagación y evolución de INSV en diferentes regiones geográficas.</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f5">
					<label>Figura 5</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Análisis filogenético integral de aislados del virus del anillado necrótico de la impatiens. Esta figura muestra un árbol filogenético construido a partir de un alineamiento de secuencias concatenadas (2945 posiciones) que incluyen regiones del nucleocápside [S(N)], precursor de la glicoproteína [M(G)], proteína de movimiento [M(NSM)] y ORFs de la polimerasa viral [L(L)]. El árbol incluye aislados de varios países, identificados por códigos de tres letras según ISO 3166-1: CHN (China), ITA (Italia), KOR (Corea del Sur) y USA (Estados Unidos de América). Para los aislados de Costa Rica, códigos de letras adicionales y distintos entre paréntesis indican ubicaciones geográficas independientes. El análisis, realizado en MEGA X, utilizó el método de Máxima Verosimilitud con un modelo de parámetro Tamura-3 y una tasa de variación en nucleótidos distribuida gamma (+G), con 2000 permutaciones. La barra de escala indica el número de sustituciones de nucleótidos por sitio.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-41-04-RMEXFIT20236-gf5.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="discussion">
			<title>Discusión</title>
			<p>En este estudio, se centró en la presencia histórica de TSWV e INSV en Costa Rica, motivados por la ausencia de TSWV en las muestras recientes y solo informes esporádicos de TSWV que datan de 1990 y 1991. Nuestro análisis de los registros de los servicios de la clínica de diagnóstico, que abarcan el período desde 2000 hasta julio de 2023, reveló una baja ocurrencia de TSWV, con períodos alternantes sin detección. Este patrón se alinea con las tendencias globales que sugieren fluctuaciones cíclicas en las ocurrencias de TSWV, según indican <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Tentchev <italic>et al</italic>. (2011</xref>) y discuten más a fondo <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Kaye <italic>et al</italic>. (2011</xref>) en relación con la dinámica poblacional de TSWV en los cultivos de cacahuete en Carolina del Norte y Virginia. Estas dinámicas pueden estar influenciadas por varios factores, incluida la biología del vector, las preferencias de alimentación de los trips y las medidas de control dirigidas específicamente contra TSWV implementadas previamente en Costa Rica. Los cambios recientes en las poblaciones de vectores y la competencia entre especies de moscas blancas, como se señala en estudios de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Can-Vargas <italic>et al</italic>. (2020</xref>) y ValverdeMéndez <italic>et al</italic>. (2023), también podrían contribuir a estas tendencias observadas.</p>
			<p>Cabe destacar que en este estudio no detectó el serogrupo de orthotospovirus GRSV/TCSV, sugiriendo su ausencia en la región continental del Caribe en América Central. Esto a pesar de su prevalencia en las islas del Caribe. El uso de cebadores degenerados de orthotospovirus en este estudio, no identificaron virus distintos a INSV, indicando una posible falta de diversidad entre los orthotospovirus en Costa Rica. La encuesta realizada entre 2013 y 2014, subraya la necesidad de una vigilancia continua para monitorear posibles introducciones de nuevas especies de orthotospovirus.</p>
			<p>Estos hallazgos establecen a INSV como un orthotospovirus prevalente en Costa Rica, en contraste con su aparente ausencia en otros países de América Central. Esta discrepancia probablemente refleje una brecha en la investigación regional de orthotospovirus en lugar de una ausencia real del virus. Estudios previos han identificado dos clados distintos de aislamientos de INSV, los clados del Hemisferio Occidental y Asiático. Nuestro análisis de la red de haplotipos, basado en una secuencia parcial del nucleocápside, sugiere la presencia de dos haplotipos principales y varios nodos secundarios, con la mayoría de las secuencias costarricenses alineadas con el clado asiático propuesto. Esta observación indica al menos dos introducciones separadas de INSV en Costa Rica. Además, nuestros resultados sugieren un agrupamiento geográfico de los aislamientos de INSV dentro de Costa Rica, con evidencia de diferenciación genética basada en el lugar de origen. Esto está en línea con hallazgos de estudios anteriores, que también indicaron una tendencia de los aislamientos de INSV a agruparse geográficamente y reportaron una diversidad genética limitada dentro de las poblaciones locales de INSV.</p>
			<p>Este estudio subraya la necesidad de más investigaciones para evaluar con precisión la diversidad genética de la población de INSV en Costa Rica. Tales esfuerzos son cruciales para comprender la epidemiología de los orthotospovirus en la región y para desarrollar estrategias efectivas de manejo.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusiones</title>
			<p>La encuesta exhaustiva realizada en 2013 y 2014 en toda Costa Rica ha proporcionado ideas significativas sobre la prevalencia y diversidad de orthotospovirus en la región. El virus de la mancha necrótica del impatiens (INSV) se detectó en un número considerable de muestras (58 de 295) analizadas mediante ELISA. El virus exhibió un amplio rango de hospederos, afectando a 13 taxones diferentes, incluyendo <italic>Allium cepa</italic>, <italic>Capsicum annuum</italic> y <italic>Solanum lycopersicum</italic>, entre otros. Por otro lado, el virus de la mancha amarilla del iris (IYSV) solo se identificó en diez muestras de cebolla. Cabe destacar que en este estudio no se detectaron el virus del bronceado del tomate (TSWV), el virus de la mancha anular del cacahuate (GRSV) y el virus de la mancha clorótica del tomate (TCSV). Sin embargo, los datos históricos confirman la presencia de TSWV en Costa Rica, con una disminución notada en las solicitudes de detección y las ocurrencias a lo largo del tiempo.</p>
			<p>El análisis basado en un fragmento de la secuencia del nucleocápside indicó una baja diversidad de INSV en Costa Rica, con solo cuatro haplotipos identificados entre las 20 muestras analizadas. Un análisis más profundo, que incluyó regiones concatenadas de los segmentos del genoma S, M y L, sugirió una variabilidad relativamente mayor de INSV dentro del país. Esta discrepancia subraya la necesidad de un muestreo y análisis adicionales para determinar con precisión la diversidad genética de INSV en Costa Rica.</p>
			<p>Estos datos sugieren la presencia de dos linajes de INSV en Costa Rica: los linajes asiáticos y del Hemisferio Occidental. Esta hipótesis concuerda con los patrones de distribución global de INSV e indica la ocurrencia de múltiples eventos de introducción en la región. Dada la naturaleza dinámica del comercio internacional y el movimiento humano, se hace esencial llevar a cabo una encuesta actualizada y más extensa en todo el país para comprender la situación actual de los orthotospovirus en Costa Rica. Además, existe una necesidad crítica de llevar a cabo investigaciones integrales en toda América Central. Estas investigaciones deben centrarse en descripciones de síntomas, listas de hospederos susceptibles e identificación de poblaciones de trips involucrados en la transmisión del virus, con el fin de comprender la epidemiología de los orthotospovirus en la región. Obtener datos de secuencias será crucial para comprender las estructuras de población e identificar cepas potencialmente de alto riesgo, como aquellas capaces de superar la resistencia. Esta información es vital para desarrollar estrategias que controlen la introducción y propagación de cepas y especies virales específicas en la región. Estrategias efectivas de gestión, que incluyan inspecciones aduaneras, medidas de cuarentena y colaboración regional, son imperativas para mitigar el impacto de estos virus en la agricultura en América Central.</p>
			<p>En conclusión, nuestro estudio destaca la importancia del monitoreo continuo, la investigación y la cooperación regional en la gestión de los orthotospovirus, un paso crucial hacia la sostenibilidad y productividad agrícola en América Central.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
		<ack>
			<title>Agradecimientos</title>
			<p>Agradecemos a los agricultores que nos proporcionaron tejido vegetal sintomático o nos permitieron recolectar muestras de sus campos o invernaderos. También expresamos nuestro agradecimiento a la Estación Experimental Jardín Botánico Lankester (JBL) y a la Estación Experimental Fabio Baudrit Moreno (EEFBM), ambas de la Universidad de Costa Rica, por permitirnos muestrear sus colecciones de orquídeas. Esta investigación fue financiada por la Universidad de Costa Rica (proyecto de investigación 801-B3-126 y actividad de investigación 801-A1-801).</p>
		</ack>
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			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Scientific Articles</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Genus Orthotospovirus in Costa Rica: A Central American case</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p> </p>
				<sec>
					<title>Objective/Background.</title>
					<p> The Orthotospovirus genus encompasses a range of economically significant and emerging plant viruses that affect a variety of crops globally. While the prevalence and characteristics of these phytopathogenic viruses are extensively documented in North and South America, their presence in Central America remains comparatively underexplored. This study focuses on Costa Rica, strategically positioned at the nexus of North and South America, to enhance our understanding of orthotospovirus in this region.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Materials and Methods.</title>
					<p> We analyzed 295 plant samples using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to test for the presence of INSV, IYSV, TSWV, and the GRSV/TCSV serogroup. Additionally, a subset (20 samples) underwent further scrutiny through reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) employing both universal and species-specific primers.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Results.</title>
					<p> Our ELISA results indicated the absence of TSWV and the GRSV/TCSV serogroup. However, the presence of INSV in Costa Rica was substantiated through ELISA, RT-PCR, and partial sequencing, revealing its prevalence in both open- field and greenhouse environments. Despite previous diagnostic reports suggesting the presence of TSWV in Costa Rica, our study did not detect this virus. RT-PCR analysis with degenerate primers also found no evidence of other orthotospovirus species in our samples. The identification of a dominant INSV haplotype, along with three additional variants, suggests the likelihood of at least two independent virus introductions into the region.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Conclusion. </title>
					<p>These findings underscore the necessity for more comprehensive surveys and research on orthotospoviruses in Central America to better understand their epidemiology and impact on agriculture.</p>
				</sec>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>viral symptoms</kwd>
				<kwd>ELISA</kwd>
				<kwd>RT-PCR</kwd>
				<kwd>genetic diversity</kwd>
				<kwd>INSV</kwd>
				<kwd>IYSV.</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introduction</title>
				<p>The <italic>Orthotospovirus</italic> genus (family Tospoviridae, order Bunyavirales) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Kuhn <italic>et al.,</italic> 2022</xref>) represents an emerging group of viruses with a global distribution, affecting various plant species (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Pappu <italic>et al.,</italic> 2009</xref>). Members of this genus have expanded their distribution or plant host range (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Londoño <italic>et al.,</italic> 2012</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Naidu <italic>et al.,</italic> 2005</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Webster <italic>et al.,</italic> 2015</xref>). Several orthotospovirus species are recognized as economically significant plant pathogens, limiting crop production or affecting yield quality. For instance, different reports mention yield losses up to 100 % and economic losses starting from several tens of thousands to millions of US dollars (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Daughtrey <italic>et al.,</italic> 1997</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Hasegawa and Del Pozo-Valdivia, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Mandal <italic>et al.,</italic> 2012</xref>).</p>
				<p>The <italic>Orthotospovirus</italic> genus comprises 26 accepted species (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Kuhn <italic>et al.,</italic> 2022</xref>). <italic>Tomato spotted wilt virus</italic> (TSWV) is the type species and causes a high economic impact on several crops (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Pappu <italic>et al.,</italic> 2009</xref>). Another significant species within the genus is <italic>Impatiens necrotic spot virus</italic> (INSV) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Daughtrey <italic>et al.,</italic> 1997</xref>). Historically, INSV was first recognized as a distinct serotype of TSWV, identified as TSWV-I (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">De Ávila <italic>et al.,</italic> 1992</xref>). <italic>Iris yellow spot virus</italic> (IYSV) is also noteworthy, an <italic>orthotospovirus</italic> of Eurasian origin that has become a limitation in onion bulb and seed production and has rapidly spread throughout the world (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Bag <italic>et al.,</italic> 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Gent <italic>et al.,</italic> 2006</xref>).</p>
				<p>Despite considerable research on orthotospovirus biology, management, and interaction with thrips vectors (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Montero-Astúa <italic>et al.,</italic> 2016</xref>), information on occurrence and sequence data is quite limited from all Central American countries. TSWV and INSV (at that time TSWV-I) were reported by serology from impatiens (<italic>Impatiens</italic> spp.) and lisianthus (<italic>Eustoma</italic> sp.) plants in Costa Rica in the early 1990s (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Hsu and Lawson, 1991</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Rivera <italic>et al.,</italic> 1990</xref>). IYSV was reported in Guatemala (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Nischwitz <italic>et al.,</italic> 2007</xref>) and Costa Rica (Montero-Astúa <italic>et al.,</italic> 2017). In addition to these scientific publications, information (local publications, dissertations or institutional project reports available online) for TSWV occurrence in Guatemala and Honduras (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Cumes Mantanico, 2008</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Dardón <italic>et al.,</italic> 1994</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Doyle <italic>et al.,</italic> 2002</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Espinoza Rivera, 2012</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Palmieri, 2012</xref>) was found, but sequence data for TSWV isolates from Central America in public databases were not.</p>
				<p>In contrast to the Central American situation, several reports have updated the orthotospovirus presence in the Caribbean islands. Outbreaks of <italic>Tomato chlorotic spot virus</italic> (TCSV), a different species of orthotospovirus originally described from Brazil (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">De Ávila <italic>et al.,</italic> 1993</xref>), were reported throughout the Caribbean Basin: Cuba (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Martinez-Zubiaur <italic>et al.,</italic> 2016</xref>), Dominican Republic (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Almeida <italic>et al.,</italic> 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Batuman <italic>et al.,</italic> 2014</xref>), Haiti (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Adegbola <italic>et al.,</italic> 2016</xref>), Puerto Rico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">De Jensen and Adkins, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Webster <italic>et al.,</italic> 2013</xref>); and additionally in Florida (USA) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Londoño <italic>et al.,</italic> 2012</xref>; Webster <italic>et al.,</italic> 2015). Moreover, TSWV was confirmed by RT-PCR in the Dominican Republic in 2013 (Martínez <italic>et al.,</italic> 2014).</p>
				<p><italic>Orthotospovirus</italic> sequence data is essential from all geographic regions and diverse plant hosts to (i) analyze viral diversity globally, (ii) recognize genetically distinct isolates, and (iii) contribute to epidemiological understanding. This information is critical for crop breeding and disease resistance programs. For instance, there are isolates of TSWV capable of overcoming resistance conferred by the Sw-5 and Tsw resistance genes in tomato (<italic>Solanum lycopersicum</italic>) and pepper (<italic>Capsicum annuum</italic>) plants, respectively. Knowledge of the isolates present in an area and sequence comparisons to identify the mutations that allow resistance- breaking are vital inputs for breeding programs (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Batuman <italic>et al.,</italic> 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Sharman and Persley, 2006</xref>).</p>
				<p>In this context, the objective of this work was to determine the prevalence of orthotospoviruses in Costa Rica and obtain partial genome sequences to analyze genetic variability. This information updates the occurrence and variability of these plant viruses in Central America. We conducted a study by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) of virus-like symptomatic plants to increase the chances of detecting orthotospoviruses. A subset of ELISA-positive samples was further examined by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). No TSWV-positive plants were detected in our samples. Therefore, we also conducted a longitudinal analysis of TSWV and INSV detection in Costa Rica based on diagnostic clinic reports from the Obligate Plant Pathogens and their Vectors Laboratory (LaFOV), Cellular and Molecular Biology Research Center (CIBCM), University of Costa Rica, available since the year 2000. This study provides a foundational update on the presence and variability of orthotospoviruses in Costa Rica, contributing to the broader understanding of these viruses in Central America. The findings suggest a shift in virus prevalence and underscore the importance of continued monitoring and research. Future efforts should focus on detailed surveillance and genetic studies to better manage these plant viruses and address agricultural challenges.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="materials|methods">
				<title>Materials and Methods</title>
				<p>Sample Collection Methodology. We collected a total of 295 plant samples representing 20 different plant families (as detailed in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>). These samples were sourced from 47 independent locations, including fields, greenhouses, parks, and gardens across five of the seven provinces in Costa Rica. Our primary targets for analysis through Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) were INSV,</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t5">
						<label>Table 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Samples collected from five provinces of Costa Rica to analyze the presence of species of Orthotospvirus<italic>.</italic></title>
						</caption>
						<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Plant Family</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">N° samples / province<sup>z</sup></th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Total samples</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">N° Sites</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Samples IDs</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Tissue</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td>Amaryllidaceae</td>
									<td>2 A, 23 C, 17 SJ</td>
									<td>42</td>
									<td>13</td>
									<td>T161-T163, T170-T175, T177-T180, T182, T183, T192, T195-T199, T283-T285, T288-T296, T298-T301, T305, T316, T317, T321</td>
									<td>Leaf</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Anacardiaceae</td>
									<td>1 SJ</td>
									<td>1</td>
									<td>1</td>
									<td>T335</td>
									<td>Fruit</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Apocynaceae</td>
									<td>1 A, 5 C</td>
									<td>6</td>
									<td>3</td>
									<td>T076, T159, T241, T346-T348</td>
									<td>Leaf</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Asparagaceae</td>
									<td>1 A</td>
									<td>1</td>
									<td>1</td>
									<td>T329</td>
									<td>Leaf</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Asteraceae</td>
									<td>0.25</td>
									<td>6</td>
									<td>2</td>
									<td>T051, T053, T325-T328</td>
									<td>Leaf</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Balsaminaceae</td>
									<td>4 A, 3 C</td>
									<td>7</td>
									<td>2</td>
									<td>T028-T031, T061, T261, T262</td>
									<td>Leaf</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Caricaceae</td>
									<td>5 P</td>
									<td>5</td>
									<td>1</td>
									<td>T330-T334</td>
									<td>Fruit</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Cucurbitaceae</td>
									<td>7 A, 3 C, 1 G, 9 P</td>
									<td>20</td>
									<td>8</td>
									<td>T035-T037, T046-, T047, T080, T090, T091, T160, T268, T270, T280, T135-T140, T265, T266</td>
									<td>Leaf</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Fabaceae</td>
									<td>4 A, 2 C, 1 SJ</td>
									<td>7</td>
									<td>5</td>
									<td>T034, T079, T118, T124, T148, T243, T258</td>
									<td>Leaf</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Gentianaceae</td>
									<td>3 C</td>
									<td>3</td>
									<td>1</td>
									<td>T322-T324</td>
									<td>Leaf</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Iridaceae</td>
									<td>4 C</td>
									<td>4</td>
									<td>1</td>
									<td>T184-T187</td>
									<td>Leaf</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Lamiaceae</td>
									<td>3 C</td>
									<td>3</td>
									<td>1</td>
									<td>T156-T158</td>
									<td>Leaf</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Liliaceae</td>
									<td>2 C</td>
									<td>2</td>
									<td>1</td>
									<td>T188-T189</td>
									<td>Leaf</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Malvaceae</td>
									<td>3 A, 1 G, 1 SJ</td>
									<td>5</td>
									<td>3</td>
									<td>T066-T068, T081, T350</td>
									<td>Leaf</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Orchidaceae</td>
									<td>18 A, 27 C</td>
									<td>45</td>
									<td>2</td>
									<td>T012-T027, T055, T056, T214-T240</td>
									<td>Leaf</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Oxalidaceae</td>
									<td>2 A</td>
									<td>2</td>
									<td>1</td>
									<td>T120, T121</td>
									<td>Leaf</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Plantaginaceae</td>
									<td>2 C</td>
									<td>2</td>
									<td>1</td>
									<td>T057, T058</td>
									<td>Leaf</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Rosaceae</td>
									<td>2 A</td>
									<td>2</td>
									<td>1</td>
									<td>T128, T131</td>
									<td>Leaf</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Solanaceae</td>
									<td>71 A, 37 C, 11 P, 12 SJ</td>
									<td>131</td>
									<td/>
									<td>T001-T011, T032, T033, T038-T045, T048-T050, T054, T059-T060, T062-T065, T069-T075, T077, T078, T082-T089, T092-T104, T106-T112, T114-T116, T119, T122, T134, T165-T169, T176, T181, T194, T202-T205, T209-T213, T245-T251, T253, T263, T264, T267, T271-T279, T302-T304, T306-T313, T320, T336-T338, T341-T345</td>
									<td>Leaf and/ or Fruit</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="border-bottom:1px solid #000;">Zingiberaceae</td>
									<td style="border-bottom:1px solid #000;">1 A</td>
									<td style="border-bottom:1px solid #000;">1</td>
									<td style="border-bottom:1px solid #000;">1</td>
									<td style="border-bottom:1px solid #000;">T339</td>
									<td style="border-bottom:1px solid #000;">Leaf</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN8">
								<p>z Sampled provinces; A, Alajuela; C, Cartago; G, Guanacaste; P, Puntarenas; SJ, San José.</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>IYSV, TSWV, and the serogroup consisting of <italic>Groundnut ring spot virus</italic> (GRSV) and <italic>Tomato chlorotic spot virus</italic> (TCSV). The collection period spanned from 2013 to 2014, with samples primarily obtained from growers who submitted them to the diagnostic clinic due to the manifestation of viral-like symptoms in their plants. Additionally, proactive visits were made to fields, greenhouses, gardens, or parks with a known history of orthotospovirus occurrence or reports of symptomatic plants. The observed symptoms prompting sample collection included mosaic patterns, chlorotic or necrotic concentric rings or line patterns, leaf deformation, irregular leaf or fruit surface (such as blistering or crinkling), and stunting. On our selection process, particular attention was given to plant species known as hosts for these viruses, such as tomatoes, onions, and peppers. These horticultural crops were more heavily represented in our sample set due to their agricultural significance and the higher probability of detecting the viruses of interest within them. Alongside these, ornamental and various other horticultural plant species were also included in our study to provide a comprehensive overview of the orthotospovirus presence and diversity in Costa Rica.</p>
				<p>Sample Preparation and ELISA Screening. For the detection of INSV, IYSV, TSWV, and the GRSV/ TCSV serogroup, we used commercial ELISA reagents from Agdia, Elkhart, IN, adhering to the manufacturer’s instructions. The process began with grinding approximately 0.5 g of plant tissue in 1 mL of a general extraction buffer. This buffer’s composition included 136 mM NaCl, 8 mM Na2HPO4, 1.5 mM KH2PO4, 2.7 mM KCl, 10mM Na2SO3, 2 % (v/v) Tween-20, 2 % (w/v)</p>
				<p>Polyvinylpyrrolidone MW 40,000, 0.2 % (w/v) chicken egg albumin, and was pH- adjusted to 7.4. Each sample was prepared in three replicates and stored at -35 °C until they were used in the ELISA tests. For the ELISA procedure, samples were tested in duplicate wells. Each plate included two wells of certified commercial positive controls (Agdia) and four wells of negative controls. The absorbance was measured at 405 nm after one hour, and extended to two hours specifically for IYSV, using a Multiskan FC microplate reader (Thermo Scientific, China). A sample was considered positive if its average absorbance value was greater than twice the average of the corresponding negative control wells, as per the criterion established by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Sutula <italic>et al.,</italic> 1986</xref>. In cases of doubtful results, samples were retested following the same protocol but utilizing an enzyme-conjugate buffer (ECI buffer, Agdia’s protocol) both with and without the addition of 5 % skim milk powder. This step was included to mitigate false positives, a method supported by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Smith <italic>et al.</italic> (2006</xref>).</p>
				<p>Longitudinal Analysis of INSV and TSWV Detection in Costa Rica. The diagnostic clinic reports for INSV and TSWV detection in Costa Rica, conducted at the Obligate Plant Pathogens and their Vectors Laboratory (LaFOV), Cellular and Molecular Biology Research Center (CIBCM), University of Costa Rica, available since 2000, represent our primary data source. This 23.5-year span of records (2000 to July 2023) offers the most comprehensive insight we have into the detection frequency of INSV and TSWV in the country. The samples submitted to the diagnostic clinic fall into two categories: (i) symptomless plant material intended for export, which requires phytosanitary certification and is likely virus-free, and (ii) symptomatic plant material, typically submitted by growers and extension agents, which is likely virus-infected, though not exclusively with orthotospoviruses. These records, encompassing both healthy and diseased-looking samples from various sizes of farms and greenhouses, provide a valuable estimate of the relative frequency of virus occurrence in Costa Rica over the years.</p>
				<p>Refinement of impatiens necrotic spot virus detection via RT-PCR: To enhance the accuracy of INSV identification, we conducted a targeted analysis using RT- PCR on 20 samples that tested positive for INSV via ELISA. This in-depth analysis involved the use of both broad-spectrum orthotospovirus primers and specific primers designed for INSV, as outlined in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>. The RNA was extracted from each sample using the RNeasy Plant Minikit (Qiagen, Germany). Subsequently, we quantified the total RNA using a NanoDrop 2000C UV-Vis spectrophotometer (ThermoScientific, USA) to ensure adequate concentration for the subsequent steps. Then, we prepared the first strand cDNA from 5 µL of the extracted RNA for each sample, achieving a final reaction volume of 20 µL. This synthesis was performed using either the RevertAid H Minus First Strand cDNA Synthesis Kit or Maxima H Minus First Strand cDNA Synthesis Kit (Thermo Scientific, Lithuania), using random hexamers. The synthesized cDNA was then stored at -35 °C for preservation. To ascertain the integrity of the cDNA and to check for potential amplification inhibitors or RNA degradation, we utilized primers targeting a 193 bp fragment of the plant 18S ribosomal RNA subunit, serving as a reference gene for plant gene expression studies (referenced from <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Zhu <italic>et al.,</italic> 2012</xref>). The PCR mixtures, totaling 25 µL each, included 2 µL of the synthesized cDNA,</p>
				<p>12.5 µL of DreamTaq PCR Master Mix 2X (Thermo Scientific), and 200 nM of</p>
				<p>each primer. The precise thermocycling conditions for each primer pair were as per specifications listed in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>, using advanced thermocyclers like PTC-200 (MJ Research, Canada), MJ Mini (BioRad, Singapore), and Corbett Research CG1-96 (Corbett Life Science, Australia). After PCR, the products were visualized on a UV light transilluminator (55W, BXT-26M, Uvitec, France). This was done following electrophoresis in a 1% agarose gel with TAE 1X buffer, with the gel stained using GelRed 10000X (Biotium Inc., USA) incorporated into the loading buffer (6X Thermo Scientific) for optimal visualization. To capture a comprehensive genetic snapshot, various primer pairs were employed to sequence different segments of the orthotospovirus genome: small (S), medium (M), and large (L). This approach,</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t6">
						<label>Table 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Primer pairs and thermocycle profiles used for the detection of orthotospoviruses.</title>
						</caption>
						<table>
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="justify"><bold>Primer pair</bold></th>
									<th align="justify"><bold>Primer sequence 5’ to 3’</bold></th>
									<th align="justify">Amplicon size (bp)</th>
									<th align="justify">Thermocycle profile</th>
									<th align="justify" rowspan="2"><bold>Reference</bold></th>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<th align="justify" colspan="4"><italic>Orthotospovirus detection (several species)</italic></th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify">BR60 BR65</td>
									<td align="justify">CCCGGATCCTGCAGAGCAAATGTGTCA ATCAAGCCTTCTGAAAGTCAT</td>
									<td align="justify"> 453</td>
									<td align="justify">95 °C x 1 min; 30 x (94 °C x 30 s, 48 °C x 1 min, 72 °C); 72 °C x 7 min</td>
									<td align="center">Eiras <italic>et al.,</italic> 2001</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify">BR035 PDH006</td>
									<td align="justify">GAATATATGACACCATTG CCCAGAGCAATCAGTGCA</td>
									<td align="justify"> 514</td>
									<td align="justify">95 °C x 1 min; 30 x (94 °C x 30 s, 48 °C x 1 min, 72 °C); 72 °C x 7 min</td>
									<td align="justify">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Eiras <italic>et al</italic>., 2001</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify">NS1 CLA1</td>
									<td align="justify">CCCTGCAGGATCCAGAGCAATCAGTGCA GCAGGCTTCAATGAATGC</td>
									<td align="justify"> 865</td>
									<td align="justify">95 °C x 1 min; 30 x (94 °C x 30 s, 48 °C x 1 min, 72 °C x 1 min); 72 °C x 7 min</td>
									<td align="justify">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Eiras <italic>et al</italic>., 2001</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify">gM410 gM870c</td>
									<td align="justify">AACTGGAAAAATGATTYNYTTGTTGG ATTAGYTTGCAKGCTTCAATNAARGC</td>
									<td align="justify"> 500</td>
									<td align="justify">95 °C x 1 min; 35 x (94 °C x 30 s, 52 °C x 30 s, 72 °C x 30 s); 72 °C x 10 min</td>
									<td align="justify">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Chen <italic>et al</italic>., 2012</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify">gL2740 gL3920c</td>
									<td align="justify">ATGGGDATNTTTGATTTCATGRTATGC TCATGCTCATSAGRTAAATYTCTCT</td>
									<td align="justify"> 1200</td>
									<td align="justify">95 °C x 2 min; 30 x (94 °C x 30 s, 50 °C x 30 s, 72 °C x 2 min); 72 °C x 5 min</td>
									<td align="justify">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Chen <italic>et al</italic>., 2012</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify">gL3637 gL4435c</td>
									<td align="justify">CCTTTAACAGTDGAAACAT CATDGCRCAAGARTGRTARACAGA</td>
									<td align="justify"> 810</td>
									<td align="justify">95 °C x 2 min; 30 x (94 °C x 30 s, 50 °C x 30 s, 72 °C x 2 min); 72 °C x 5 min</td>
									<td align="justify">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Chu <italic>et al</italic>., 2001</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify">gL3637 gL4510c</td>
									<td align="justify">CCTTTAACAGTDGAAACAT TCATCRGARTGBACMATCCATCT</td>
									<td align="justify"> 890</td>
									<td align="justify">95 °C x 2 min; 30 x (94 °C x 30 s, 50 °C x 30 s, 72 °C x 2 min); 72 °C x 5 min</td>
									<td align="justify" rowspan="2">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Chu <italic>et al</italic>., 2001</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify" colspan="4"><italic>INSV specific detection</italic></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify">INSV-589 TOS-R15</td>
									<td align="justify">CCCAAGACACAGGATTTCA GGGAGAGCAATYGWGKYR</td>
									<td align="justify"> 589</td>
									<td align="justify">95 °C x 2 min; 35 x (94 °C x 30 s, 54 °C x 30 s, 72 °C x 1 min); 72 °C x 5 min</td>
									<td align="justify" rowspan="2">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Uga &amp; Tsuda, 2005</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify" colspan="4"><italic>Plants’ 18S ribosomal RNA subunit</italic></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify">18S-F 18S-R</td>
									<td align="justify">TCTGCCCGTTGCTCTGATGAT CCTTGGATGTGGTAGCCGTTT</td>
									<td align="justify"> 193</td>
									<td align="justify">95 °C x 1 min; 40 x (94 °C x 30 s, 55 °C x 30 s, 72 °C x 35 s); 72 °C x 5 min</td>
									<td align="justify">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Zhu <italic>et al</italic>., 2012</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>sometimes involving overlapping amplicons (as depicted in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>), enabled us to acquire partial sequences of four distinct orthotospovirus ORFs (illustrated in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>): the S(N) segment, M(NSM) segment, M(G) segment, and the L(L) segment. These sequences encompass critical regions like the nucleocapsid, movement protein, glycoprotein precursor, and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, offering a deeper understanding of the virus’s genetic structure.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Analysis of Impatiens necrotic spot virus: Sequencing and Haplotype Network Construction</title>
					<p>Sequencing Process. Direct sequencing was performed on all amplicons derived from the selected 20-sample subset, previously identified as positive for </p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f6">
							<label>Figure 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Representation of primer pairs annealing positions in reference to the complete genome of <italic>Impatiens necrotic spot virus</italic>; accession numbers in parenthesis for each genome segment. Overlapping among primers and the final partial sequences (gray rectangles) obtained herein with corresponding expected size (bp). Base pair values under each primer represent the positions of the first and last nucleotide of the corresponding amplicon in the reference genome.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-41-04-RMEXFIT20236-gf6.png"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>INSV through ELISA. This sequencing, conducted in both forward and reverse directions, employed the identical primer pairs used in the PCR amplifications. Macrogen Inc. (Korea) was responsible for the purification and sequencing of these PCR products. The resulting sequence contigs were carefully assembled and meticulously edited using BioEdit software (version 7.2.5). The obtained sequences were archived in the GenBank database, a repository maintained by the National Institute of Health. Our approach to analyzing the phylogenetic relationships of INSV involved extracting sequences representative of various geographic locations and host plants from GenBank. We employed a specific search strategy focusing on “Impatiens necrotic spot”, categorizing the sequences by their respective genome segments: S, M, and L. Initial phylogenetic trees were constructed for each of the amplified genome regions: S(N), M(NSM), M(G), and L(L). This phase included incorporating relevant sequences available from the GenBank. DNA substitution models were meticulously selected to fit our phylogenetic analyses, which we executed using the MEGA X software (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Kumar <italic>et al.,</italic> 2018</xref>). However, the initial phylogenetic constructs did not reveal any definitive or robust clustering patterns. In our pursuit of a more granular understanding of INSV diversity at a global scale, we aligned the S(N) sequences from our study with 81 INSV sequences retrieved from the GenBank, focusing on a 261 bp segment of the N ORF. This alignment was accomplished using the MUSCLE algorithm and was refined by trimming sequence overhangs to ensure uniformity. Using the DnaSP6 software (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Rozas <italic>et al.,</italic> 2017</xref>), we conducted a thorough haplotype determination and population analysis on this dataset, encompassing 79 isolates (excluding two due to missing geographical data). The sequences were thoughtfully categorized by their countries or regions for a detailed analysis. To visualize the genetic relationships and variations among these INSV isolates, we constructed a haplotype network. This was achieved using the PopART software (Population Analysis with Reticulate Trees, <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://popart/">http://popart.</ext-link> otago.ac.nz), applying the TCS network inference method (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Clement <italic>et al.,</italic> 2000</xref>) to map the intricate connections between the various haplotypes. In a subsequent, more detailed analysis, we aligned and concatenated different regions of the INSV genome that were successfully amplified and sequenced from the same sample. This analysis included twelve samples from Costa Rica (where sequence data for all four targeted regions were obtained) and five international INSV samples with available complete genomes. The comprehensive alignment, spanning 2,945 positions, was subjected to a Maximum Likelihood analysis using a Tamura 3-parameter model with a gamma-distributed rate variation (+G), and this process involved 2,000 permutations in the MEGA X software. The analyses were conducted for all genome segments, both with and without the inclusion of Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) as an outgroup, utilizing its reference sequences (S: NC_002051; M: NC_002050; and L: NC_002052) for comparative purposes.</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="results">
				<title>Results</title>
				<p>ELISA Analyses and Observed Symptoms. The ELISA tests identified INSV and IYSV in the samples, with INSV being relatively common in Costa Rica (58 out of 295 samples). Notably, TSWV and the serogroup comprising GRSV and TCSV were not detected. INSV was found in 12 out of 39 plant species tested, including pepper (<italic>Capsicum annuum</italic>), onion (<italic>Allium cepa</italic>), tomato (<italic>Solanum lycopersicum</italic>), and irises (<italic>Iris</italic> sp.), which had the highest number of positive samples (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref>). Common symptoms associated with INSV included chlorotic or necrotic rings and spots, and chlorotic ring patterns (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>). IYSV was exclusively detected in 10 onion leaf samples.</p>
				<p>Longitudinal Analysis of TSWV and INSV Occurrence. Our investigation into the historical presence of <italic>Tomato spotted wilt virus</italic> (TSWV) and <italic>Impatiens necrotic spot virus</italic> (INSV) in Costa Rica was motivated by the absence of TSWV in our recent sample studies and the fact that the only documented occurrences of TSWV in the country were reported in 1990 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Rivera <italic>et al.,</italic> 1990</xref>) and 1991 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Hsu and Lawson, 1991</xref>). To delve deeper into this matter, we reviewed data from the diagnostic-clinic services records spanning from 2000 to July 2023.These records predominantly consisted of ornamental plants intended for exportation or importation but also included horticultural samples from growers ranging from small to large scale. A total of 1027 samples were analyzed for TSWV and 1889 for INSV. Out of these, 43 samples (4.2 %) tested positive for TSWV, and 290 samples (15.4 %) for INSV, as determined by DAS-ELISA using commercial antibodies (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 3</xref>). Notably, between 2008 and 2010, the annual number of INSV-positive samples exceeded 50. In contrast, the count of TSWV-positive samples remained below ten each year.</p>
				<p>Post-2015, the frequency of detecting both viruses significantly decreased. Over the years covered in the analysis, TSWV was detected in only 11 years, whereas INSV was detected in 17 years, as depicted in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>. This trend underscores the changing patterns of virus prevalence and highlights the need for ongoing surveillance.</p>
				<p>RT-PCR Confirmation of INSV Occurrence. RT-PCR analyses substantiated the presence of INSV in nine different plant taxa: <italic>Antirrhinum majus, Capsicum annuum, Hippeastrum, Impatiens, Iris, Ocimum basilicum, Plectranthus scuttellarioides, Solanum lycopersicum</italic>, and the artificially created orchid hybrid Bakerara. All plant species that tested positive for INSV via ELISA also yielded positive results in RT- PCR tests using at least two different primer pairs, followed by sequencing (as shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 4</xref>). Exceptions to this included <italic>Browallia</italic> sp., <italic>Eustoma</italic> sp., and onion samples. The Browallia and Eustoma plants, unfortunately, wilted and</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f7">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Diverse Symptoms of <italic>Impatiens necrotic spot virus</italic> (INSV) in Multiple Hosts Confirmed by ELISA and RT-PCR/Sequencing. A: Necrotic concentric rings on Impatiens (<italic>Impatiens sp.)</italic> T031. B, C: Chlorotic rings and spots on Snapdragons (<italic>Antirrhinum majus</italic>) T057. D: Chlorotic and necrotic striate on orchid leaves T024. E, F: Chlorotic mosaic on Amaryllis (<italic>Hippeastrum</italic> sp<italic>.</italic>) T161 and Iris (<italic>Iris</italic> sp<italic>.</italic>) T184. G: Necrotic concentric rings on Coleus (<italic>Plectranthus scuttellarioides</italic>) T157. H: Chlorotic patterns on Basil (<italic>Ocimum basilicum</italic>) T156. I, M: Chlorotic concentric ring patterns on Sweet Pepper (<italic>Capsicum annuum</italic>) leaves T250 and T092. J, K, L: Uneven ripening, ring patterns, and deformation on Sweet Pepper fruits T092, T107, T094. N, O: Chlorotic patterns, rings, and uneven surface on Tomato (<italic>Solanum lycopersicum</italic>) fruits T263 and T303.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-41-04-RMEXFIT20236-gf7.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t7">
						<label>Table 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Number of total and positive samples per plant species tested by ELISA to detect three orthotospoviruses in Costa Rica.</title>
						</caption>
						<table>
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col span="3"/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="justify"> </th>
									<th align="justify" rowspan="2"><bold>Sample number</bold></th>
									<th align="justify" colspan="3">No positive samplesy </th>
									<th align="justify"> </th>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<th align="justify">Plant host (common name)</th>
									<th align="center">INSV</th>
									<th align="center">IYSV</th>
									<th align="center">TSWV</th>
									<th align="justify">GRSV/ TCSV</th>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<th align="justify"><italic>Amaryllidaceae</italic></th>
									<th align="justify"> </th>
									<th align="justify"> </th>
									<th align="justify"> </th>
									<th align="justify"> </th>
									<th align="justify"> </th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Allium cepa</italic> (onion)</td>
									<td align="justify">38</td>
									<td align="center">6</td>
									<td align="center">10</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Allium sativum</italic> (garlic)</td>
									<td align="justify">2</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Hippeastrum</italic> sp.(“amaryllis”)</td>
									<td align="justify">1</td>
									<td align="center">1</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Tulbaghia violaceae</italic> (society garlic)</td>
									<td align="justify">1</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Anacardiaceae</italic></td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Spondias purpurea</italic> (jocote)</td>
									<td align="justify">1</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Apocynaceae</italic></td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Mandevilla</italic> sp. (dipladenia)</td>
									<td align="justify">1</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Trachelospermum jasminoides</italic> (star jasmine)</td>
									<td align="justify">1</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Cataranthus roseus</italic> (periwinkle)</td>
									<td align="justify">4</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Asparagaceae</italic></td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Ornithogalum</italic> sp. (star of Bethlehem)</td>
									<td align="justify">1</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Asteraceae</italic></td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Lactuca sativa</italic> (lettuce)</td>
									<td align="justify">6</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Balsaminaceae</italic></td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Impatiens</italic> sp. (impatiens)</td>
									<td align="justify">7</td>
									<td align="center">3</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Caricaceae</italic></td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Carica papaya</italic> (papaya)</td>
									<td align="justify">5</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Cucurbitaceae</italic></td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Citrullus lanatus</italic> (watermelon)</td>
									<td align="justify">2</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Cucumis melo</italic> (muskmelon)</td>
									<td align="justify">13</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Cucumis sativus</italic> (cucumber)</td>
									<td align="justify">1</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Cucurbita</italic> pepo (pumpkin, zucchini)</td>
									<td align="justify">2</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Sechium edule</italic> (chayote)</td>
									<td align="justify">1</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Sechium tacaco</italic> (tacaco)</td>
									<td align="justify">1</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Fabaceae</italic></td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Arachis pintoi</italic> (pinto peanut)</td>
									<td align="justify">3</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Phaseolus vulgaris</italic> (black bean)</td>
									<td align="justify">4</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Gentianaceae</italic></td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Eustoma</italic> sp. (lisianthus)</td>
									<td align="justify">3</td>
									<td align="center">3</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Iridaceae</italic></td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Iris</italic> sp. (iris)</td>
									<td align="justify">4</td>
									<td align="center">4</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Lamiaceae</italic></td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Ocimum basilicum</italic> (basil)</td>
									<td align="justify">1</td>
									<td align="center">1</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Plectranthus scuttellarioides</italic> (coleus)</td>
									<td align="justify">2</td>
									<td align="center">2</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Liliaceae</italic></td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Lilium</italic> sp. (lilies)</td>
									<td align="justify">2</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Malvaceae</italic></td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Gossypium hirsutum</italic> (cotton)</td>
									<td align="justify">1</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Hibiscus</italic> sp. (hibiscus)</td>
									<td align="justify">4</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Orchidaceae</italic></td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify">Several species and hybrids<bold>z</bold> (orchids)</td>
									<td align="justify">45</td>
									<td align="center">1</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Oxalidaceae</italic></td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Oxalis</italic> sp.</td>
									<td align="justify">2</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify" colspan="4"><italic>Plantaginaceae</italic></td>
									<td align="justify" colspan="2"> 
 </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify" colspan="4"><italic>Antirrhinum majus</italic> (snapdragon) </td>
									<td align="right" colspan="2">2 </td>
									<td align="center">2</td>
									<td align="justify">0</td>
									<td align="right">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify" colspan="4"><italic>Rosaceae</italic></td>
									<td align="justify" colspan="2"> 
 </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify" colspan="4"><italic>Fragaria x ananassa</italic> (strawberry) </td>
									<td align="right" colspan="2">2 </td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="justify">0</td>
									<td align="right">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify" colspan="4"><italic>Solanaceae</italic></td>
									<td align="justify" colspan="2"> 
 </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify" colspan="4"><italic>Browallia</italic> sp. (bush violet) </td>
									<td align="right" colspan="2">2 </td>
									<td align="center">1</td>
									<td align="justify">0</td>
									<td align="right">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify" colspan="4"><italic>Calibrachoa</italic> sp. (million bells) </td>
									<td align="right" colspan="2">4 </td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="justify">0</td>
									<td align="right">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify" colspan="4"><italic>Capsicum annuum</italic> (sweet pepper) </td>
									<td align="right" colspan="2">68 </td>
									<td align="center">30</td>
									<td align="justify">0</td>
									<td align="right">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify" colspan="4"><italic>Petunia</italic> sp. (petunia) </td>
									<td align="right" colspan="2">14 </td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="justify">0</td>
									<td align="right">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify" colspan="4"><italic>Solanum lycopersicum</italic> (tomato) </td>
									<td align="right" colspan="2">37 </td>
									<td align="center">4</td>
									<td align="justify">0</td>
									<td align="right">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify" colspan="4"><italic>Solanum melongena</italic> (eggplant) </td>
									<td align="right" colspan="2">1 </td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="justify">0</td>
									<td align="right">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify" colspan="4"><italic>Solanum quitoense</italic> (naranjilla, lulo) </td>
									<td align="right" colspan="2">1 </td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="justify">0</td>
									<td align="right">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify" colspan="4"><italic>Solanum tuberosum</italic> (potato) </td>
									<td align="right" colspan="2">4 </td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="justify">0</td>
									<td align="right">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify" colspan="4"><italic>Zingiberaceae</italic></td>
									<td align="justify" colspan="2"> 
 </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify" colspan="4"><italic>Hedychium</italic> sp. </td>
									<td align="right" colspan="2">1 </td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
									<td align="justify">0</td>
									<td align="right">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify" colspan="4">Total </td>
									<td align="right">295</td>
									<td align="right"> </td>
									<td align="center">58</td>
									<td align="justify">10</td>
									<td align="right">0</td>
									<td align="center">0</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN9">
								<p><bold>y</bold> Samples were tested to detect: <italic>Impatiens necrotic spot virus</italic> (INSV), <italic>Iris yellow spot virus</italic> (IYSV), <italic>Tomato spotted wilt virus</italic> (TSWV) or the serogroup <italic>Groundnut ring spot virus/Tomato chlorosis spot virus</italic> (GRST/TCSV) <bold>z</bold> Orchid samples included several different genera and hybrids; therefore, those are listed together as family Orchidaceae. The positive sample corresponded to a plant of the hybrid genus <italic>Bakerara</italic>.</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>died in our greenhouse before we could collect tissue samples for RNA extraction, preventing their testing by RT-PCR. Additionally, onion samples were not tested by RT-PCR as the presence of IYSV in these samples had already been confirmed in a previous study (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Montero-Astúa <italic>et al.,</italic> 2017</xref>). In total, we successfully obtained and edited 72 final partial sequences or contigs. These included 18 sequences each for the nucleocapsid and movement protein genes, 20 for the glycoprotein precursor gene, and 16 for the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) gene. All of these sequences have been submitted to GenBank and are documented in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 4</xref>.</p>
				<p>Haplotype Network Analysis. In the initial phylogenetic analysis of the S(N), M(NSM), M(G), and L(L) sequences of INSV, including sequences from other countries, we noticed a lack of well-defined clusters (data not shown). Consequently, we shifted our focus to a haplotype analysis of the S(N) sequence dataset. This dataset comprised a 261 bp segment from the nucleocapsid ORF of INSV isolates globally available in the GenBank, along with the 18 sequences we obtained in this study (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref>). In our haplotype network analysis, we identified four distinct haplotypes of the partial nucleocapsid ORF sequence within Costa Rica. Among</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f8">
						<label>Figure 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Long-Term Detection of impatiens necrotic spot and tomato spotted wilt viruses by ELISA. This graph presents the frequency of detection for both Impatiens necrotic spot virus and Tomato spotted wilt virus over a 23.5-year period (2000 to July 2023). The data, derived from samples submitted to the diagnostic services at the Cellular and Molecular Biology Research Center, University of Costa Rica, illustrate the temporal trends and occurrence patterns of these viruses in Costa Rica.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-41-04-RMEXFIT20236-gf8.png"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>these, one haplotype emerged as predominant in the country, which interestingly is also found in China, Japan, Europe, and Korea. The other two haplotypes, although less prevalent in Costa Rica, are more closely related to a major haplotype observed in Europe, Japan, New Zealand, and the USA. Further, we conducted a concatenated analysis of four genome regions (S, M, and L genome segments) that we amplified and sequenced. This analysis included 12 samples from Costa Rica and five INSV</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t8">
						<label>Table 4</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Partial nucleotide sequences and virus identity determined for a subset of INSV ELISA-positive samples.</title>
						</caption>
						<table>
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col span="2"/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="justify" rowspan="2"><bold>Plant host</bold></th>
									<th align="justify" rowspan="2"><bold>ID</bold></th>
									<th align="center">Sitew, province</th>
									<th align="justify"> </th>
									<th align="justify" colspan="2">Sequencex identificationy </th>
									<th align="justify"> </th>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<th align="justify"> </th>
									<th align="center">S(N)</th>
									<th align="center">M(NSM)</th>
									<th align="center">M(G)</th>
									<th align="center">L(L)</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Antirrhinum majus</italic></td>
									<td align="center">T057</td>
									<td align="center">D, Cartago</td>
									<td align="center">MH687991</td>
									<td align="center">MH673625</td>
									<td align="center">MH673643</td>
									<td align="center">MH487473</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Capsicum annuum</italic></td>
									<td align="center">T092</td>
									<td align="center">N, Alajuela</td>
									<td align="center">MH687992</td>
									<td align="center">MH673626</td>
									<td align="center">MH673644</td>
									<td align="center">MH487474</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="center">T093</td>
									<td align="center">M, Alajuela</td>
									<td align="center">MH687993</td>
									<td align="center">MH673627</td>
									<td align="center">MH673645</td>
									<td align="center">MH487475</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="center">T094</td>
									<td align="center">M, Alajuela</td>
									<td align="center">MH687994</td>
									<td align="center">MH673628</td>
									<td align="center">MH673646</td>
									<td align="center">MH487476</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="center">T096</td>
									<td align="center">M, Alajuela</td>
									<td align="center">MH687995</td>
									<td align="center">MH673629</td>
									<td align="center">MH673647</td>
									<td align="center">MH487477</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="center">T107</td>
									<td align="center">N, Alajuela</td>
									<td align="center">MH687996</td>
									<td align="center">MH673630</td>
									<td align="center">MH673648</td>
									<td align="center">MH487479</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="center">T109</td>
									<td align="center">N, Alajuela</td>
									<td align="center">MH687997</td>
									<td align="center">MH673631</td>
									<td align="center">MH673649</td>
									<td align="center">MH487480</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="center">T245</td>
									<td align="center">II, Cartago</td>
									<td align="center">MH688003</td>
									<td align="center">MH673638</td>
									<td align="center">MH673657</td>
									<td align="center">MH487487</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="center">T250</td>
									<td align="center">II, Cartago</td>
									<td align="center">MH688004</td>
									<td align="center">MH673639</td>
									<td align="center">MH673658</td>
									<td align="center">MH487488</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="center">T251</td>
									<td align="center">II, Cartago</td>
									<td align="center">MH688005</td>
									<td align="center">MH673640</td>
									<td align="center">MH673659</td>
									<td align="center">MH487489</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Hippeastrum</italic> sp.</td>
									<td align="center">T161</td>
									<td align="center">D, Cartago</td>
									<td align="center">MH688001</td>
									<td align="center">MH673635</td>
									<td align="center">MH673653</td>
									<td align="center">MH487483</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Impatiens</italic> sp.</td>
									<td align="center">T031</td>
									<td align="center">C, Alajuela</td>
									<td align="center">MH687990</td>
									<td align="center">MH673624</td>
									<td align="center">MH673642</td>
									<td align="center">MH487472</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Iris</italic> sp.</td>
									<td align="center">T184</td>
									<td align="center">CC, Cartago</td>
									<td align="center">---<bold>z</bold></td>
									<td align="center">MH673636</td>
									<td align="center">MH673654</td>
									<td align="center">MH487484</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"> </td>
									<td align="center">T186</td>
									<td align="center">CC, Cartago</td>
									<td align="center">--- <bold>z</bold></td>
									<td align="center">MH673637</td>
									<td align="center">MH673655</td>
									<td align="center">MH487486</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify"><italic>Ocimun basilicum</italic></td>
									<td align="center">T156</td>
									<td align="center">D, Cartago</td>
									<td align="center">MH687998</td>
									<td align="center">MH673632</td>
									<td align="center">MH673650</td>
									<td align="center">--- <bold>z</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify">Orchid</td>
									<td align="center">T024</td>
									<td align="center">B, Alajuela</td>
									<td align="center">MH687989</td>
									<td align="center">MH673623</td>
									<td align="center">MH673641</td>
									<td align="center">--- <bold>z</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify" rowspan="2"><italic>Plectranthus scuttellarioides</italic></td>
									<td align="center">T157</td>
									<td align="center">D, Cartago</td>
									<td align="center">MH687999</td>
									<td align="center">MH673633</td>
									<td align="center">MH673651</td>
									<td align="center">MH487481</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">T158</td>
									<td align="center">D, Cartago</td>
									<td align="center">MH688000</td>
									<td align="center">MH673634</td>
									<td align="center">MH673652</td>
									<td align="center">MH487482</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify" rowspan="2"><italic>Solanum lycopersicum</italic></td>
									<td align="center">T263</td>
									<td align="center">O, San José</td>
									<td align="center">MH688006</td>
									<td align="center">--- <bold>z</bold></td>
									<td align="center">MH673660</td>
									<td align="center">--- <bold>z</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">T303</td>
									<td align="center">O, San José</td>
									<td align="center">MH688007</td>
									<td align="center">--- <bold>z</bold></td>
									<td align="center">MH673661</td>
									<td align="center">--- <bold>z</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify">Total (<italic>n</italic>)</td>
									<td align="center">20</td>
									<td align="center">8, 3</td>
									<td align="center">18</td>
									<td align="center">18</td>
									<td align="center">20</td>
									<td align="center">16</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN10">
								<p>w Different letter codes distinguish independent fields, greenhouses, parks, or gardens.</p>
							</fn>
							<fn id="TFN11">
								<p>x Sequences corresponding to partial fragments of the S, M and L genome segments of orthotospoviruses obtained from one or several primer pairs (contig) as shown in Figure 1. S(N), partial sequence of the nucleocapsid ORF and 3’-UTR regions of the S genome segment. M(NSM), partial sequence of the movement protein ORF (NSM). M(G), partial sequence of the glycoprotein precursor ORF. And L(L), an internal region of the polymerase (RdRp) ORF in the L genome segment.</p>
							</fn>
							<fn id="TFN12">
								<p>y Plant virus species determined by the first hit BLAST result (GenBank, National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S.A.) and percentage of identity &gt;97%.</p>
							</fn>
							<fn id="TFN13">
								<p>z ---, no sequence available because: (i) there was no amplification in RT-PCR; alternatively, (ii) an amplicon was generated but the sequencing reaction failed (one or both primers), or yielded only plant host sequence (nonspecific amplification).</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>genomes available in GenBank (illustrated in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 5</xref>). The results showed that the Costa Rican INSV samples clustered together, distinctly separate from the reference sequences. Notably, the sub-cluster structures of the Costa Rican samples generally aligned with their geographical sites of origin. This finding indicated a greater diversity within the Costa Rican INSV population compared to what was suggested by the haplotype network. In the phylogenetic tree, the branches and nodes clearly delineated the differences among the 12 Costa Rican isolates included in our study (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 5</xref>). This variation in genetic diversity highlights the complex nature of INSV spread and evolution within different geographic regions.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f9">
						<label>Figure 4</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Haplotype Network Graph of Impatiens Necrotic Spot Virus. This graph is a haplotype network inferred using the TCS method, based on a 261 bp sequence alignment of the nucleocapsid protein ORF (S[N] segment) of Impatiens necrotic spot virus. The network includes data from 81 isolates, visually representing the genetic relationships and diversity among the different haplotypes of the virus.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-41-04-RMEXFIT20236-gf9.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="discussion">
				<title>Discussion</title>
				<p>In our study, we focused on the historical presence of TSWV and INSV in Costa Rica, prompted by the absence of TSWV in our recent samples and only sporadic reports of TSWV dating back to 1990 and 1991. Our analysis of records from the</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f10">
						<label>Figure 5</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Comprehensive phylogenetic analysis of impatiens necrotic spot virus isolates. This figure illustrates a phylogenetic tree constructed from an alignment of concatenated sequences (2945 positions) encompassing regions of the nucleocapsid [S(N)], glycoprotein precursor [M(G)], movement protein [M(NSM)], and viral polymerase [L(L)] ORFs. The tree includes isolates from various countries, identified by ISO 3166-1 three- letter codes: CHN (China), ITA (Italy), KOR (South Korea), and USA (United States of America). For Costa Rican isolates, additional distinct letter codes in parenthesis signify separate geographic locations. The analysis, executed in MEGA X, utilized the Maximum Likelihood method with a Tamura-3-parameter model and a gamma-distributed rate of variation in nucleotides (+G), involving 2000 permutations. The scale bar indicates the number of nucleotide substitutions per site.</title>
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						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-41-04-RMEXFIT20236-gf10.jpg"/>
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				<p>diagnostic clinic services, covering the period from 2000 to July 2023, revealed a low occurrence of TSWV, with alternating periods devoid of detection. This pattern aligns with global trends suggesting cyclical fluctuations in TSWV occurrences, as indicated by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Tentchev <italic>et al.</italic> (2011</xref>) and further discussed by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Kaye <italic>et al</italic>. (2011</xref>) in relation to the TSWV population dynamics in peanut crops in North Carolina and Virginia. These dynamics may be influenced by various factors, including vector biology, thrips feeding preferences, and previously implemented TSWV- targeted control measures in Costa Rica. The recent shifts in vector populations and competition among whitefly species, as noted in studies by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Can-Vargas <italic>et al</italic>. (2020</xref>) and <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Valverde-Méndez <italic>et al</italic>. (2023</xref>), could also contribute to these observed trends.</p>
				<p>Notably, our survey did not detect the orthotospovirus serogroup GRSV/TCSV, suggesting its absence in the continental Caribbean region of Central America. This is despite its prevalence in the Caribbean islands. The use of degenerate <italic>orthotospovirus</italic> primers in our study, which did not identify viruses other than INSV, indicates a possible lack of diversity among orthotospoviruses in Costa Rica. Our survey, conducted between 2013 and 2014, emphasizes the need for ongoing surveillance to monitor potential introductions of new orthotospovirus species.</p>
				<p>Our findings establish INSV as a prevalent orthotospovirus in Costa Rica, in contrast to its apparent absence in other Central American countries. This discrepancy likely reflects a gap in regional orthotospovirus research rather than an actual absence of the virus. Previous studies have identified two distinct clades of INSV isolates, the Western Hemisphere and Asian clades. Our haplotype network analysis, based on a partial nucleocapsid sequence, suggests the presence of two main haplotypes and various secondary nodes, with most Costa Rican sequences aligning with the putative Asian clade. This observation indicates at least two separate introductions of INSV into Costa Rica. Additionally, our results suggest a geographical clustering of INSV isolates within Costa Rica, with evidence of genetic differentiation based on the site of origin. This is in line with findings from previous studies, which also indicated a tendency for INSV isolates to cluster geographically and reported limited genetic diversity within local INSV populations.</p>
				<p>Our study underscores the need for further research to accurately assess the genetic diversity of the INSV population in Costa Rica. Such efforts are crucial for understanding the epidemiology of orthotospoviruses in the region and for developing effective management strategies.</p>
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			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusions</title>
				<p>Our comprehensive survey conducted in 2013 and 2014 across Costa Rica has yielded significant insights into the prevalence and diversity of orthotospoviruses in the region. Impatiens necrotic spot virus (INSV) was detected in a significant number of samples (58 out of 295) tested via ELISA. The virus exhibited a wide host range, affecting 13 different taxa including <italic>Allium cepa, Capsicum annuum, and Solanum lycopersicum,</italic> among others. Conversely, IYSV was only identified in ten onion samples. Notably, TSWV, GRSV, and TCSV were not detected in this study. However, historical data confirm the presence of TSWV in Costa Rica, with a noted decrease in detection requests and occurrences over time.</p>
				<p>The analysis based on a fragment of the nucleocapsid sequence indicated low diversity of INSV in Costa Rica, with only four haplotypes identified among the 20 samples analyzed. A more in-depth analysis, including concatenated regions of the S, M, and L genome segments, suggested a relatively higher variability of INSV within the country. This discrepancy underscores the need for further sampling and analysis to accurately determine the genetic diversity of INSV in Costa Rica.</p>
				<p>Our data suggest the presence of two lineages of INSV in Costa Rica - the Asian and Western Hemisphere lineages. This hypothesis aligns with the global distribution patterns of INSV and indicates multiple introduction events into the region. Given the dynamic nature of international trade and human movement, an updated and more extensive survey across the whole country is essential to understand the current status of orthotospoviruses in Costa Rica. Furthermore, there is a critical need for comprehensive research throughout Central America. This research should focus on symptom descriptions, susceptible host lists, and identification of thrips populations involved in virus transmission, to understand the epidemiology of orthotospoviruses in the region. Acquiring sequence data will be crucial for understanding population structures and identifying potential high-risk strains, such as those capable of breaking resistance. This information is vital for developing strategies to control the introduction and spread of specific viral strains and species in the region. Effective management strategies, including customs inspections, quarantine measures, and regional collaboration, are imperative to mitigate the impact of these viruses on agriculture in Central America.</p>
				<p>In conclusion, our study highlights the importance of continuous monitoring, research, and regional cooperation in managing orthotospoviruses, a critical step towards ensuring agricultural sustainability and productivity in Central America.</p>
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				<title>Acknowledgments</title>
				<p>We are grateful to growers who gave us symptomatic plant tissue or allowed us to collect samples from their fields or greenhouses. We also thank Experimental Station Lankester Botanical Garden Research Center (JBL) and Experimental Station Fabio Baudrit Moreno (EEFBM), both from Universidad de Costa Rica, for allowing us to sample their orchid collections. This research was funded by Universidad de Costa Rica (research project 801-B3-126 and research activity 801-A1- 801).</p>
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