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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">rmfi</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Revista mexicana de fitopatología</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Rev. mex. fitopatol</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">0185-3309</issn>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2007-8080</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedad Mexicana de Fitopatología A.C.</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.18781/R. MEX.FIT.FIT.2307-3</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artículo de revisión</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Conservación de enemigos naturales de <italic>Diaphorina citri</italic> y su impacto en Huanglongbing: Análisis y perspectivas</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Cortez-Madrigal.</surname>
						<given-names>Hipolito</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1">*</xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff1">
					<label>1</label>
					<institution content-type="original"> Instituto Politécnico Nacional-CIIDIR, Michoacán. Justo Sierra # 28, Col. Centro, Ji quilpan, Mich. México CP 59510</institution>
					<institution content-type="normalized">Instituto Politécnico Nacional-CIIDIR</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Politécnico Nacional-CIIDIR</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<city>Ji quilpan</city>
						<state>Mich</state>
						<postal-code>59510</postal-code>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1">
					<label><italic>*</italic></label><bold>
 <italic>Autor de correspondencia</italic>:</bold> Hipolito Cortez-Madrigal <email>hcortezm@ipn.mx</email>
				</corresp>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>14</day>
				<month>11</month>
				<year>2024</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<season>May-Aug</season>
				<year>2024</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>42</volume>
			<issue>2</issue>
			<elocation-id>RMEXFIT2307-3</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>30</day>
					<month>07</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>21</day>
					<month>03</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
					<license-p>Este es un artículo publicado en acceso abierto bajo una licencia Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>RESUMEN</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Resumen. </title>
					<p><italic>Diaphorina citri</italic> es un importante vector de <italic>Candidatus</italic> Liberibacter asiaticus (<italic>C</italic>Las), agente causal del HLB, la enfermedad más devastadora de los cítricos. Aunque se reconoce la importancia del control biológico, los insecticidas son la principal herramienta de control. Sin embargo, su empleo debería ser cau- teloso, pues pudiera interferir con el control de plagas reguladas biológicamente. <italic>Diaphorina citri</italic> cuenta con un amplio abanico de enemigos naturales; sin embar- go, solo se aprovecha de forma inundativa al parasitoide <italic>Tamarixia radiata</italic> y algu- nas especies de hongos entomopatógenos. Aunque los principales depredadores del vector ocurren de manera natural, pocos estudios abordan su conservación <italic>in situ</italic>. Esta revisión abona a la idea de que la conservación de enemigos naturales debería ser base del manejo integrado de <italic>D. citri</italic> y de <italic>C</italic>Las. Se propone la conservación de hospederos alternos, la inclusión de plantas nectaríferas, conservación de para- sitoides <italic>in situ</italic>, y la autodiseminación de hongos entomopatógenos. Se analizan y discuten estudios sobre conservación de enemigos naturales desarrollados en <italic>D. citri</italic> y plagas cercanas, su probable impacto en la enfermedad, y perspectivas de implementación en México. Las estrategias propuestas pudieran potenciar, no solo el control biológico de <italic>D. citri-C</italic>Las, sino también la autorregulación de plagas de cítricos en general.</p>
				</sec>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
				<title>Palabras clave:</title>
				<kwd>Psílido asiático de los cítricos</kwd>
				<kwd>biocontrol</kwd>
				<kwd>Tamarixia radiata</kwd>
				<kwd>hon- gos entomopatógenos</kwd>
				<kwd>conservación.</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="8"/>
				<table-count count="2"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="76"/>
				<page-count count="0"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introducción</title>
			<p>Con más de 600 000 ha y una producción superior a los 8 millones de t en 2021, México se ubica como uno de los principales productores de cítricos. La derrama económica generada alcanzó cerca de 35 millones de pesos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">SIAP, 2022</xref>), lo que demuestra la importancia de esos cultivos en el sector económico del país. Su pro- ducción se encuentra distribuida en 24 de los 32 estados que conforman el país; desde la península de Yucatán, hasta Tamaulipas por el Golfo de México; y desde Chiapas, hasta Sonora y la península de Baja California por el Pacífico (Salcedo- Baca <italic>et al</italic>., 2010; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">García-Ávila <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). Sin embargo, en el mundo los cítricos enfrentan una amplia problemática fitosanitaria; que, a diferencia de otros cultivos, en ellos ocurren casos exitosos de control biológico clásico. <italic>E.g</italic>., en México, la escama algodonosa de los cítricos (<italic>Icerya purchasi</italic>) mediante la catarinita <italic>Rodolia cardinalis</italic> y la mosca prieta (<italic>Aleurocanthus woglumi</italic>), regulada por el parasitoide <italic>Encarsia perplexa</italic>, entre otras (Trevor <italic>et al</italic>., 2013).</p>
			<p>Lo anterior hace que los cítricos sean un cultivo especial, pues a diferencia de otros donde el control químico es base fundamental del manejo de plagas, en cítri- cos los plaguicidas deben ser utilizados con mayor cuidado. Su abuso pudiera per- turbar el equilibrio ecológico logrado, y eventualmente favorecer el resurgimiento de plagas de importancia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">Qureshi y Stansly, 2009</xref>) como las arriba mencionadas.</p>
			<p>En los últimos años se han registrado nuevas invasiones de plagas exóticas en México, donde destaca el “psílido asiático de los cítricos”, <italic>Diaphorina citri</italic> (Hemiptera: Leviidae), que junto con <italic>Trioza erytreae</italic> (Hemiptera: Triozidae), es uno de los vectores de <italic>Candidatus</italic> Liberibacter asiaticus (<italic>C</italic>Las), agente causal de la enfermedad Huanglongbing (HLB). Después de la introducción del psílido en 2002, el HLB fue registrado por primera vez en 2009 en Yucatán; desde enton- ces, la enfermedad se ha distribuido a diferentes regiones hasta cubrir 24 estados citrícolas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">García-Ávila <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). Los riesgos de la presencia del patosistema</p>
			<p><italic>D. citri</italic>-<italic>C</italic>Las en la citricultura mexicana (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">Salcedo-Baca <italic>et al</italic>., 2010</xref>) motivaron al desarrollo de estrategias de manejo integrado, donde destaca el control químico, y de manera complementaria, el biológico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">García-Ávila <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>).</p>
			<p>En México, el psílido cuenta con una amplia diversidad de enemigos naturales (EN), incluido uno de sus parasitoides primarios, <italic>Tamarixia radiata</italic> (Hymenopte- ra: Eulophidae) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Cortez-Mondaca <italic>et al</italic>., 2010</xref>; Mora-Aguilera, 2013). Este insecto se encuentra ampliamente distribuido en las zonas citrícolas de México; sin embar- go, los niveles de parasitismo son insuficientes (3-26 %) para la regulación natural de la plaga y de <italic>C</italic>Las (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Halbert y Manjunath, 2004</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">García-Ávila <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). Para potenciar el control biológico (CB) de <italic>D. citri</italic> y reducir el riesgo de dispersión de <italic>C</italic>Las, el gobierno mexicano ha hecho esfuerzos para establecer un programa de control biológico inundativo (CBI) mediante el parasitoide <italic>T. radiata</italic> en las regio- nes citrícolas del país (García-Ávila <italic>et al</italic>., 2021). Aunque la literatura científica señala la importancia de la conservación de EN en el manejo de <italic>D. citri</italic>, son pocos los estudios desarrollados en el mundo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">Qureshi y Stansly, 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Irvin <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Irvin y Hoddle, 2021</xref>), mientras que en México la investigación documentada es incipiente (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Godoy-Ceja y Cortez-Madrigal, 2018</xref>).</p>
			<p>Bajo el supuesto de que el manejo integrado de plagas (MIP) debe descansar en la conservación de EN, y el empleo de insecticidas solo cuando la población plaga alcance un umbral económico (UE), el objetivo del presente escrito es analizar el estatus del manejo del patosistema <italic>D. citri-C</italic>Las en el mundo, pero particularmente en México. Con base en ello, proponer estrategias de conservación que puedan ir más allá del control biológico de <italic>D. citri</italic>; es decir, la regulación de otros fitófagos de los cítricos (incluidas plagas).</p>
			<sec>
				<title>El agroecosistema citrícola en México</title>
				<p>Los cítricos cultivados son originarios del Sureste asiático, donde evoluciona- ron por alrededor de 8 millones de años (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Ibanez <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>). Conocer el centro de origen de un cultivo es primordial para el manejo de plagas exóticas, pues eventual- mente se requerirá la exploración e importación de EN desde su lugar de origen. A través de su historia productiva, los cítricos en México han sido frecuentemente afectados por diversas plagas exóticas, varias de ellas reguladas exitosamente me- diante programas de control biológico clásico (Trevor <italic>et al</italic>., 2013).</p>
				<p>La producción citrícola en México se localiza en 24 de los 32 estados del país (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">García-Ávila <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>), regiones con amplias diferencias edafoclimáticas y cul- turales, relacionadas ambas con el diseño y manejo del agroecosistema, incluido el patosistema <italic>D. citri</italic>-<italic>C</italic>Las. Así, los vientos y la dispersión de las huertas marcaron la diferencia en la intensidad del HLB entre las regiones citrícolas del Pácifico mexicano y la Península de Yucatán (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Mora-Aguilera, 2013</xref>).</p>
				<p>Al igual que otros productores, los citricultores mexicanos tienen características distintivas entre ellos, por lo que debería considerarse su tipología; entendida como la caracterización de productores con base en superficie, tecnología y nivel educa- tivo, entre otras (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">Rosales-Martínez <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>). Lo anterior facilitaría la imple- mentación de diversos programas; <italic>e.g</italic>., la conservación de EN. Así, la situación so- cioeconómica y cultural de pequeños productores induce a establecer plantaciones con diferentes características; <italic>e.g</italic>., grados de diversificación; desde plantaciones con tolerancia de malezas y asociación con otros cultivos (Península de Yucatán); hasta los policultivos, como el sistema café-plátano-cítrico practicado en algunas regiones del estado de Veracruz (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Aguilar <italic>et al</italic>., 2014</xref>). Lo anterior contrasta con los monocultivos extensivos en diferentes regiones del país (<italic>e.g.</italic> Huimanguillo, Tabasco). Son modelos agrícolas contrastantes en diseño y manejo; por ejemplo, el uso de plaguicidas, aspecto determinante para la implementación de estrategias de Control Biológico por Conservación (CBPC) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Gurr y You, 2016</xref>).</p>
				<p>Aunque existen plantaciones con sistemas de riego, la mayor parte de la citri-</p>
				<p>cultura mexicana (63 %) es de temporal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">García-Ávila <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). No obstante, algunas regiones reúnen condiciones favorables para la prevalencia de EN; <italic>e.g</italic>., en Rovirosa, Quintana Roo, la alta humedad relativa favoreció el desarrollo de epizootias naturales del hongo <italic>Hirsutella citriformis</italic> en <italic>D. citri</italic> (Mora-Aguilera <italic>et al</italic>., 2017), lo que sugiere que los hongos entomopatógenos (HEPs) pudieran ser una herramienta clave para el manejo del complejo <italic>D. citri</italic>-<italic>C</italic>Las en esas regiones.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title><bold>El patosistema cítrico-<italic>Diaphorina citri-C</italic>Las</bold></title>
				<p>En 2002 se introdujo a México <italic>D. citri</italic>, actualmente distribuido en todas las zo- nas citrícolas del país (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">García-Ávila <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). Además de los daños directos que causa en los cítricos, <italic>D. citri</italic> es vector de α-Proteobacterias, G-negativas del género <italic>Candidatus</italic> Liberibacter spp. agente causal del HLB (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Galdeano <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). Se en- cuentran involucradas tres especies: <italic>C</italic>L. africanus, <italic>C</italic>L. americanus y <italic>C</italic>L. asiaticus. Esta última es la más prevalente en el mundo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Thakuria <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). Los daños y pérdidas por HLB son variables entre país, región y hospedero; así, en Brasil las pérdidas en naranja dulce fluctuaron del 17.5-42 %; mientras que, en México las pérdidas varian de acuerdo con el cultivo y región; desde 17 % para limón persa en Yucatán, hasta 62 % para limón mexicano en Colima (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Mora Aguilera <italic>et al</italic>., 2014</xref>). En un escenario de baja intensidad del HLB en México, se estiman pérdidas de 1.84 millones de t de cítricos; o sea, el 25 % de la producción nacional, con pérdidas de 4 millones de jornales (Salcedo <italic>et al</italic>., 2010).</p>
				<p>La idea de “epidemia” como un desequilibrio entre poblaciones puede aplicar- se al patosistema cítricos-<italic>D. citri</italic>-<italic>C</italic>Las, donde el conocimiento de su biología y ecología puede ser la diferencia entre el éxito o fracaso de programas de manejo. Como guía se pudiera aplicar el concepto de “sistema epidemiológico”, concebido éste como un sistema abierto de <italic>n</italic>-factores que opera en tiempo y espacio para determinar la incidencia de una epidemia (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>) (Mora-Aguilera <italic>et al</italic>., 2017).</p>
				<p>Para <italic>D. citri</italic>, la temperatura optima fluctua entre 25-28 ºC y su desarrollo se detiene entre los 10 y 33 oC (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Liu y Tsai, 2000</xref>). Las hembras dejaron de ovipositar cuando la temperatura se mantuvo durante cinco días a 34 °C; una vez se redujo la temperatura, los adultos nuevamente iniciaron la ovipostura (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">Skelley y Hoy, 2004</xref>). Por su parte, <italic>C</italic>Las no tolera temperaturas &gt;35 °C (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Thakuria <italic>et al.</italic>, 2023</xref>). El nú- mero de huevos por hembra de <italic>D. citri</italic> fue menor cuando la humedad relativa se mantuvo por debajo de 40 % (Skelley y Hoy, 2004).</p>
				<p>Por otro lado, la humedad tiene un efecto indirecto en <italic>D. citri</italic>, pues favorece la prevalencia de HEPs que reducen las poblaciones del insecto (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Aubert, 1987</xref>). Una interacción entre precipitaciones pluviales leves y altas temperaturas, favorecieron indirectamente las poblaciones de <italic>D. citri</italic> al inducir mayor brotación foliar en los árboles, aspecto correlacionado directamente con las poblaciones del vector e inci- dencia del HLB (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Leong <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). El viento es otro factor clave en la dispersión de <italic>D. citri</italic> y <italic>C</italic>Las. Se ha documentado que el psílido puede volar hasta 2.4 km en ausencia de viento. En presencia de vientos, algunas estimaciones sugieren que el insecto pudiera dispersarse hasta 4 km (Mora-Aguilera, 2013) e incluso 470 km (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">Stelinski, 2019</xref>). Bajo ese escenario, las corrientes de viento fue uno de los factores que favorecieron la rápida dispersón del HLB en México (Mora <italic>et al</italic>., 2013).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f1">
						<label>Figura 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Sistema Epidemiológico definido por la interacción de factores determinantes de un proceso epidé- mico: especie plaga, entomopatógeno, depredador (predator) y parasitoide, cultivo, manejo agro- nómico, clima, y algún otro factor específico (ni) y los cuales operan a distintos niveles espacio-temporal (Tomado de Mora-Aguilera <italic>et al</italic>., 2017).</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-02-RMEXFIT2307-3-gf1.png"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Los adultos hibernantes de <italic>D. citri</italic>, especialmente las hembras, sobreviven por más tiempo (8-9 meses) y congregan en el envés de las hojas. Las ninfas son se- dentarias, pero las recién emergidas pueden migrar hacia brotes vecinos o moverse dentro del mismo brote, pero nunca hacia hojas maduras (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">Yang <italic>et al</italic>., 2006</xref>). Un aspecto de interés para el manejo ecológico del vector y <italic>C</italic>Las es que tanto machos como hembras se aparean múltiples veces con diferentes parejas, y existen eviden- cias de que la hembra emite una feromona sexual para atraer a su pareja (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">Wenninger y Hall, 2008</xref>). La producción de huevos en <italic>D. citri</italic> es variable; <italic>e.g</italic>., en función del hospedero. Así, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">Tsai y Liu (2000</xref>) obtuvieron una media de 857.9 huevos en toronja, mientras que <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Nava <italic>et al</italic>. (2007</xref>) registraron 348.4 huevos en <italic>Murraya paniculata</italic>.</p>
				<p>Los huevos de <italic>D. citri</italic> son depositados exclusivamente en brotes vegetativos y las ninfas solo se desarrollan en ellos; así, su fluctuación poblacional se correlacionó positivamente con esos periodos fenológicos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Leong <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). El mayor daño de <italic>D. citri</italic> suele ocurrir con la brotación foliar de otoño (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">Yang <italic>et al</italic>., 2006</xref>; Godoy- Ceja y Cortez-Madrigal, 2018). Bajo condiciones tropicales como la India, pueden ocurrir hasta nueve generaciones. Con base a temperatura, días favorables al psilido y superficie plantada, estimaciones para México sugieren desde 15 hasta 34 genera- ciones anuales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Díaz-Padilla <italic>et al</italic>., 2014</xref>). <italic>Diaphorina citri</italic> es fuertemente atraído por el color amarillo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Patt <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>).</p>
				<p>La relación <italic>D. citri</italic>-<italic>C</italic>Las es de tipo propagativo-circulativo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Galdeano <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>) y una vez adquirido el patógeno, el insecto permanece infectivo durante su vida; sin embargo, no se ha registrado transmisión transovarial (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Halbert y Manjuna- th, 2004</xref>). De acuerdo con <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Inoue <italic>et al</italic>. (2009</xref>), los insectos que adquieren la bacteria en estado adulto muestran una pobre eficiencia como vectores; en cambio, los que adquieren el patógeno en estado ninfal son más eficientes como vectores. La baja concentración de bacterias en el insecto adulto fue causa de la baja transmisión a la planta; en cambio, cuando el psílido se alimenta en estado ninfal en una planta enferma, la concentración de la bacteria incrementa significativamente y se trans- mite hasta en 67 % de las plantas sanas. El periodo de incubación de <italic>C</italic>Las en el hospedero puede ser hasta de seis meses (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Aleman <italic>et al</italic>., 2007</xref>).</p>
				<p>Se ha comprobado que <italic>C</italic>Las requiere de aminoácidos que obtiene de la planta hospedera y de <italic>D. citri</italic>. Existen amplias evidencias de que <italic>C</italic>Las puede manipular el comportamiento y desempeño del vector, y así incrementar la transmisibilidad y dispersión del patógeno. Lo anterior ocurre tanto dentro del vector, como por intermediación de la planta infectada. Los vectores positivos tienen mayor ferti- lidad, fecundidad, y tasa de desarrollo; en cambio, la sobrevivencia se reduce. De cualquier modo, <italic>C</italic>Las favorece el incremento de poblaciones positivas de <italic>D. citri</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">Yamada <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>).</p>
				<p>Otros aspectos interesantes de la relación cítrico-<italic>D. citri-C</italic>Las es que los insec- tos adultos positivos muestran mayor capacidad de vuelo que los psilidos negati- vos. Su preferencia por los volátiles en plantas enfermas es evidente; sin embargo, una vez infectados, los insectos se dispersan hacia plantas sanas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">Yamada <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>); lo anterior, y el hecho de que las hembras evitan brotes infestados por el in- secto, favorece la dispersión de la enfermedad. El psilido se distribuye, primero en agregados; después, en forma aleatoria y luego, nuevamente en agregados (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Leong <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). La manipulación por <italic>C</italic>Las llega incluso hasta el apareamiento; <italic>e.g</italic>., los machos de <italic>D. citri</italic> mostraron mayor atracción por hembras positivas que por las sanas. También, el parasitoide <italic>T. radiata</italic> es mayormente atraído por plantas enfermas (Yamada <italic>et al</italic>., 2019).</p>
				<p>El sistema inmune del psílido también es alterado por <italic>C</italic>Las. En adultos posi- tivos, la concentración de oxidasas y esterasas se reduce significativamente. Estas enzimas son fundamentales para la detoxificación de insecticidas; por tanto, insectos positivos son más susceptibles a insecticidas; incluso, a los HEPs (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">Yamada <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Lo anterior tiene implicaciones prácticas en la conservación de EN; por ejemplo, utilizar HEPs, o dosis mínimas de insecticidas dirigidas a insectos positi- vos; así, se causaría menor daño a los EN.</p>
				<p>Al igual que otros vectores, el sistema inmune de <italic>D. citri</italic> es incompleto; así, los endosimbiontes asociados al insecto contribuyen con la producción de metabolitos de defensa contra invasores; <italic>e.g</italic>., <italic>C</italic>Las y EN (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">Yamada <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Al respecto, en psílidos positivos se incrementó la producción de “diaphorin”, un policétido que tiene efectos tóxicos para insectos; y por lo tanto, pudiera limitar la actividad de algunos EN del psílido, como el coccinélido <italic>Harmonia axyridis</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Galdeano <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). No se registraron investigaciones que diluciden esas interacciones; <italic>e.g</italic>., niveles de parasitismo de <italic>T. radiata</italic> en psílidos positivos.</p>
				<p>Para <italic>D. citri</italic> se han registrado 59 especies hospederas de la familia Rutaceae (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Halbert y Manjunath, 2004</xref>). Además, el psílido puede alimentarse en <italic>Celtis</italic> spp. y <italic>Solanum tuberosum</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">Stelinski, 2019</xref>). Recientemente se reportó la planta <italic>Cor- dia myxa</italic> (Boraginaceae) como hospedera de <italic>D. citri</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Arshad <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>), lo que sugiere que el psílido (y probablemente <italic>C</italic>Las) pudiera tener hospederas no regis- tradas previamente, particularmente en regiones de reciente introducción del com- plejo <italic>D. citri</italic>-<italic>C</italic>Las.</p>
				<p>Mediante injertos se demostró la susceptibilidad a <italic>C</italic>Las de casi todos los cítri- cos cultivados. <italic>Citrus sinensis</italic> suele ser la especie más susceptible, mientras que</p>
				<p><italic>aurantiifolia</italic> la más tolerante (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Thakuria <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). Especies ornamentales de <italic>Murraya</italic> spp. son también hospederas de <italic>C</italic>Las. Aunque <italic>M. paniculata</italic> puede fun- cionar como hospedero puente en la diseminación de <italic>C</italic>Las, la excepcional dilución de la bacteria después de cinco meses sugiere que esa especie es poco importante como hospedera de <italic>C</italic>Las (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Damsteegt <italic>et al</italic>., 2010</xref>). En contraste, <italic>M. koenigii</italic> fue tolerante a <italic>C</italic>Las, por lo que se sugiere su empleo como planta trampa (Beloti <italic>et al</italic>., 2018).</p>
				<p>También, mediante <italic>Cuscuta</italic> spp. se logró transmitir <italic>C</italic>Las a plantas fuera de la familia Rutaceae; <italic>e.g</italic>., <italic>Catharanthus roseus</italic> (Apocynaceae) y diferentes plantas solanáceas. En <italic>Pithecillobium lucidum</italic> (Fabaceae) se registró <italic>C</italic>Las aun cuando no se registraron psilidos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Thakuria <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). En adición, en <italic>Cleome rutidos- perma</italic> (Cappraceae), <italic>Pisonia aculeata</italic> (Nyctaginaceae) y <italic>Trichostigma actandrum</italic> (Phytolaccaceae) se detectó <italic>C</italic>Las mediante PCR, sin registros de psílidos ni sínto- mas del HLB (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Brown <italic>et al.,</italic> 2014</xref>).</p>
				<p>En el 2010 se registraron adultos de <italic>D. citri</italic> en tricomas glandulares de <italic>Si- cydium tamnifolium</italic> (Cucurbitaceae) sobre plantas de <italic>M. paniculata</italic> en Chetumal, Q.R., México. La especie se distribuye solo por la vertiente del Golfo de México y Chiapas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Lira, 2004</xref>). Aunque se desconoce su papel como hospedera de <italic>D. citri</italic>, esas observaciones preliminares sugieren que <italic>S. tamnifolium</italic> pudiera aprovecharse como planta trampa para <italic>D. citri</italic> y otras plagas. Sin embargo, es necesario dilucidar los pros y contras de su uso; <italic>e.g</italic>., interferencia con el control biológico, interferen- cia con el cultivo, probable reservorio de plagas, economía.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title><bold>Manejo de <italic>Diaphorina citri-C</italic>Las</bold></title>
				<p>Una vez que <italic>C</italic>Las infecta a su hospedante es difícil eliminarlo, aun cuando numerosos estudios demuestran posibilidades de control; por ejemplo, mediante control cultural, químico y biológico; termoterapia, inductores de defensa, y ma- nipulación genética para la resistencia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Thakuria <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). Sin embargo, en la práctica el manejo del HLB incluye medidas preventivas; entre otras, producción de plantas sanas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">Yang <italic>et al</italic>., 2006</xref>), erradicación de plantas enfermas y control legal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">García-Ávila <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>); pero fundamentalmente mediante el control del vector (Yang <italic>et al</italic>., 2006; García-Ávila <italic>et al</italic>., 2021). Aunque se propone el manejo integrado de <italic>D. citri</italic>, la mayor atención se centra en control químico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">Qureshi y Stansly, 2007</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Parra y Coelho, 2019</xref>), y el biológico solo de manera complementa- ria (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Etienne <italic>et al</italic>., 2001</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">Salcedo-Baca <italic>et al</italic>., 2010</xref>). Sin embargo, cuando está pre- sente <italic>C</italic>Las en huertas comerciales, el control químico es el recomendado (Parra y Coelho, 2019; García-Ávila <italic>et al</italic>., 2021). Después de la introducción del complejo D<italic>citri</italic>-<italic>C</italic>Las en Brasil, las aplicaciones de insecticidas se incrementaron &gt;600 % (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Parra <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>). Visto así, el control químico pudiera tener un impacto detri- mental en el ambiente y en las poblaciones de EN (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">Qureshi y Stansly, 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Monzó y Stansly, 2020</xref>). Para vectores de enfermedades el UE es prácticamente ausencia de plaga. <italic>E.g</italic>., la tasa de transmisión de <italic>C</italic>Las por adultos de <italic>D. citri</italic> a plantas de <italic>Citrus depressa</italic> se estimó en 8.5 % cuando se introdujo un adulto por planta, con un período de acceso a la inoculación de dos semanas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">Ukuda-Hosokawa <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>). Se han propuesto solo algunos UE para su control; así, en Florida se sugieren cinco adultos y tres ninfas/brote (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Halbert y Manjunath, 2004</xref>); ó, 0.2-0.7 adultos/brote y</p>
				<p>0.2 adultos/trampa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Monzo y Stansly, 2015</xref>). En México, un UE propuesto es un adulto/trampa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">Yzquierdo-Álvarez, 2021</xref>).</p>
				<p><italic>Diaphorina citri</italic> cuenta con un amplio abanico de EN, tanto depredadores, pa- rasitoides como entomopatógenos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">Yang <italic>et al</italic>., 2006</xref>; Qureshi y Stansley, 20007), los que presumiblemente deberían reducir también la incidencia y prevalencia de la enfermedad.</p>
				<p>Entomófagos. En el mundo se tienen registros de 95 especies de artrópodos (arác- nidos e insectos) dentro de nueve ordenes y 23 familias (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Kondo <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>), con un impacto variable en <italic>D. citri</italic>. Por ejemplo, en Arabia Saudita el Orden Araneae con- tribuyó hasta con 33.6 % en la reducción del vector (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Halbert y Manjunath, 2004</xref>). En Florida, los depredadores contribuyen hasta con 100 % del control de <italic>D. citri</italic> (Quereshi <italic>et al</italic>., 2009). Incluyen especies de Araneae, Hemerobiidae, Syrphidae y Anthocoridae; aunque destacaron los coccinélidos, <italic>H. axyridis</italic>, <italic>Olla v-nigrum</italic> y <italic>Cycloneda sanguinea</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Michaud, 2004</xref>). En Colombia se registraron 16 especies de EN de seis familias y cinco ordenes que inciden en <italic>D. citri</italic> (Kondo <italic>et al</italic>., 2015). Contrariamente, las altas aplicaciones de insecticidas en Brasil limitaron el impacto de los depredadores en el CB del psílido (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Parra <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>). En México se registran 20 especies de entomófagos incluidos en las familias Coccinellidae, Chrysopidae, Anthocoridae y Vespidae, con mayor prevalencia de las dos primeras. También, se han aislado de <italic>D. citri</italic> HEPs como <italic>Beauveria bassiana</italic> e <italic>Hirsutella citriformis</italic> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Cuadro 1</xref>).</p>
				<p>La mayor atención en control biológico de <italic>D. citri</italic> ha sido mediante la introduc- ción de sus parasitoides, <italic>T. radiata</italic> y <italic>Dyaphorencyrtus aligarhensis</italic> (Hymoptera:</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t1">
						<label>Cuadro 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Enemigos naturales asociados a <italic>D. citri</italic> en huertas citrícolas de México.</title>
						</caption>
						<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th>Familia/Especie </th>
									<th>Referencia </th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-weight:bold">Coccinellidae </td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style:italic">H. axyridis</td>
									<td>Mora-Aguilera, 2013 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style:italic">O. v-nigrum</td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style:italic">C. sanguinea</td>
									<td>Cortez-Mondaca et al., 2010 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style:italic">Chilocorus cacti</td>
									<td>Mora-Aguilera, 2013 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style:italic">Hippodamia convergens</td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style:italic">Scymnus sp. </td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style:italic">Arawana sp. </td>
									<td>Lozano-Contreras y Jasso-Argumedo, 2012 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style:italic">Azya orbigera</td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style:italic">Delphastus sp. </td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style:italic">Zagloba sp. </td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-weight:bold">Chrysopidae </td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style:italic">Ceraeocrhysa sp. </td>
									<td>Lozano-Contreras y Jasso-Argumedo, 2012 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style:italic">C. cubana</td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style:italic">C. claveri</td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style:italic">C. valida</td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style:italic">C. everes</td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style:italic">Chrysoperla rufrilabris</td>
									<td>Cortez-Mondaca et al., 2010 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style:italic">Ch. comanche</td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style:italic">Chrysoperla sp. </td>
									<td>Mora-Aguilera, 2013 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-weight:bold">Anthocoridae Orius spp. </td>
									<td>Cortez-Mondaca et al., 2011 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-weight:bold">Eulophidae T. radiata</td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-weight:bold">Encyrtidae Diaphorencyrtus spp. </td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-weight:bold">Globorotallidae H. citriformis</td>
									<td>Mora-Aguilera et al., 2017 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-weight:bold">Clavicitaceae B. bassiana</td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>Encyrtidae) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Halbert y Manjunath, 2004</xref>), aunque la mayor atención se ha centrado en el primero. Sin embargo, sus niveles de parasitismo han sido variables; desde 28.9-36.4 % en Taiwan (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Chiu <italic>et al.,</italic> 1988</xref>), hasta 100 % en la isla Reunión, Francia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Etienne <italic>et al.</italic>, 2001</xref>).</p>
				<p>En Florida, <italic>T. radiata</italic> es un factor de mortalidad poco importante de <italic>D. citri</italic>, con niveles &lt; 20 % en primavera-verano; aunque en otoño alcanza niveles del 39-56 % (Quereshi <italic>et al</italic>., 2009). En Puerto Rico, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Pluke <italic>et al</italic>. (2008</xref>) reportaron niveles de parasitismo del 70-100 %; mientras que, en Sinaloa, México se registró hasta 59.6 % de parasitismo natural (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Cortez-Mondaca <italic>et al</italic>., 2010</xref>). La eficiencia de <italic>T. radiata</italic> es fuertemente limitada por la presencia de hiperparasitoides (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Aubert, 1987</xref>), uso de plaguicidas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Diniz <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>), ausencia de hospederos en periodos críticos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Leong <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>), y ausencia de néctar y polen (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Irvin y Hoddle, 2021</xref>).</p>
				<p>Dada la variabilidad en el parasitismo de <italic>T. radiata</italic>, el mayor esfuerzo se ha centrado en la cría y liberación masiva (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Parra <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Flores y Ciomperlik, 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">García-Ávila <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). Sin embargo, en huertos comerciales la estrategia es incompatible con los plaguicidas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Diniz <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). Así, el control biológico solo se practica en huertos de traspatio, zonas urbanas y en plantaciones abando- nadas, con evidencias científicas de reducir la incidencia de <italic>D. citri</italic> y del HLB en huertas comerciales (Parra <italic>et al</italic>., 2016; Diniz <italic>et al</italic>., 2020; García-Ávila <italic>et al</italic>., 2021). <italic>E.g</italic>., en Texas, EE. UU. después de liberar <italic>T. radiata</italic> se redujo el vector en</p>
				<p>&gt; 91 % (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Flores y Ciomperlik, 2017</xref>). En países como Brasil se alcanzaron niveles de parasitismo del 72.5 % después de la liberación del parasitoide (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Parra <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>). En México se menciona que el parasitismo natural de <italic>T. radiata</italic> (3-26 %) se incrementó hasta 85 % después de liberaciones masivas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">García-Ávila <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>).</p>
				<p>Hongos entomopatógenos. Destacan las especies <italic>H. citriformis</italic>, <italic>B. bassiana</italic> (Pa- dulla y Alves, 2021), <italic>Isaria fumosorosea</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Gallou <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>) y <italic>Metarhizium ani- sopliae</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Ayala-Zermeño <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>). Sin embargo, solo <italic>H. citriformis, B. bassiana</italic> e <italic>I. fumosorosea</italic> (=<italic>Paecilomyces fumosoroseus</italic>) se han aislado del insecto (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Halbert y Manjunath, 2004</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Meyer <italic>et al</italic>., 2008</xref>; Mora-Aguilera <italic>et al</italic>., 2017). Los HEPs han sido mayormente evaluados como estrategia inundativa (<italic>i.e.</italic> aspersión); en Brasil, su empleo en campo alcanzó niveles de 57.8 y 96.1 % de mortalidad, lo que estu- vo directamente relacionado con la humedad, e inversamente con la temperatura (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Saldarriaga-Ausique <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>).</p>
				<p>En México, los HEPs constituyen una herramienta importante contra <italic>D. citri</italic> y C<italic>L</italic>as en huertas comerciales de cítricos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">García-Ávila <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). Después de evaluar <italic>Cordyceps bassiana</italic>, <italic>M. anisopliae</italic> e <italic>I. fumosorosea</italic> en Colima, México, la mayor mortalidad en ninfas (60 %) y adultos (50 %) se obtuvo con <italic>C. bassiana</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Lezama-Gutiérrez <italic>et al</italic>., 2012</xref>)<italic>.</italic> En condiciones de campo <italic>I. javanica</italic> (=<italic>fumosoro- sea</italic>) alcanzó una mortalidad del 66-81.8 % (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Gallou <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>).</p>
				<p>Los HEPs pueden también colonizar los tejidos de las plantas. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Bamisile <italic>et al</italic>. (2021</xref>) determinaron la capacidad endofítica de <italic>B. bassiana</italic> e <italic>I. fumosorosea</italic>, don- de <italic>s</italic>olo el primero colonizó los tejidos de cítricos. Siete días después de inoculados, la mortalidad en adultos de <italic>D. citri</italic> fue de 10-15 %, y mostró una reducción signi- ficativa de huevecillos depositados por hembras alimentadas en plantas tratadas.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title><bold>Más allá del control biológico del patosistema <italic>D. citri</italic>-HLB: la conservación de enemigos naturales</bold></title>
				<p>Existe la idea de que, una vez establecido <italic>C</italic>Las, el control biológico (CB) de</p>
				<p><italic>D. citri</italic> es irrelevante para el manejo del HLB (Helbert y Manjunath, 2004; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">Yang <italic>et al</italic>., 2006</xref>), y esto pudiera ser cierto cuando se piensa el CB que emula al control químico; es decir, reducir drásticamente la población plaga. Sin embargo, si igno- ramos el paradigma convencional y atomístico del control de plagas y del control biológico inundativo (CBI) derivado de él, podremos visualizar un fenómeno na- tural de autorregulación de poblaciones; tan poderoso, que el control biológico por conservación (CBPC) debería considerase como base del MIP.</p>
				<p>El CBPC incluye todas aquellas medidas dirigidas a la modificación del ambien- te y al manejo de plaguicidas para favorecer la conservación e incremento de EN (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Gurr y You, 2016</xref>). El CBPC es la estrategia más importante del CB, pero también la menos atendida (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Cortez-Madrigal y Gutiérrez-Cárdenas, 2023</xref>). Lo anterior debi- do a que el paradigma agrícola moderno se ha diseñado con fines productivistas, no para la conservación de organismos benéficos. Diversas estrategias son planteadas para su conservación; entre otras, el manejo de plaguicidas; dispositivos para la conservación e incremento de parasitoides <italic>in situ</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Kehrli <italic>et al</italic>., 2005</xref>); provisión de alimento alterno como néctar, polen (Gurr y Wratten, 1999; Gurr y You, 2016) y hospederos alternos (Cortez-Madrigal y Gutiérrez-Cárdenas, 2023).</p>
				<p>Cuando en un cultivo falta alimento alternativo para EN, éstos se desplazan a lugares donde lo puedan obtener, lo que desfavorece la presencia de poblaciones funcionales de EN (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Cortez-Madrigal y Gutiérrez-Cárdenas, 2023</xref>); o que su pre- sencia se retrase tanto, que el CB llega a ser ineficiente (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Doutt y Nakata, 1973</xref>). La situación anterior puede modificarse mediante un rediseño del agroecosistema que favorezca el establecimiento permanente de parasitoides, depredadores y ento- mopatógenos antes de que arribe la plaga; pero no solo de EN conformados por insectos y ácaros, sino también del conjunto de organismos que participan en la au- torregulación de poblaciones en los ecosistemas; esto es, el CBPC desde una visión amplia: “más allá del control biológico” (Cortez-Madrigal y Gutiérrez-Cárdenas, 2023).</p>
				<p>Aunque se ha demostrado el valor económico del CBPC en la regulación pobla- cional de <italic>D. citri</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Monzó y Stansly, 2020</xref>), pocos estudios se han documentado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Irvin <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Irvin y Hoddle, 2021</xref>). Algunas estrategias de conservación de EN evaluadas en <italic>D. citri</italic> o en plagas relacionadas, son: flora nectarífera, hospederos alternos de EN, dispositivos para la conservación e incremento de parasitoides <italic>in situ</italic>, dispositivos para la conservación, y la autodiseminación de entomopatógenos. A diferencia del CB clásico e inundativo, el CBPC suele ser más barato; incluso, puede potenciar las otras dos estrategias del CB. Se ha argumentado, por ejemplo, que las fallas de diversos programas de CB clásico se debe, probablemente, a la ausencia de hospederos alternos que sostuvieran en determinados periodos a los EN recientemente introducidos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Gurr y Wratten, 1999</xref>). ¿Podría ser el caso de <italic>T.</italic></p>
				<p><italic>radiata</italic>?</p>
				<p>Si las condiciones del agroecosistema fuesen favorables para el establecimiento de EN, el control biológico inundativo también se pudiera potenciar con un menor número de liberaciones. A la propuesta que integra el CB clásico, inundativo y por conservación, se le ha denominado “control biológico integrado” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Gurr y Wratten, 1999</xref>). Los cítricos en México pudieran ser un primer modelo de control biológico integrado.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title><bold>Potenciando el control biológico de <italic>D. citri</italic>
</bold></title>
				<p>Inclusión y conservación de plantas nectaríferas. Debido a las condiciones im- perantes del cultivo, el parasitoide <italic>T. radiata</italic> esta necesariamente ausente de los cítricos durante gran parte del año. Una estrategia para su conservación sería la inclusión de plantas nectaríferas para atraer poblaciones de EN. Sin embargo, no todas las especies nectaríferas son igualmente atractivas, por lo que se requieren estudios particulares. Así, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Irvin <italic>et al</italic>. (2021</xref>), después de evaluar cuatro especies de plantas con flores en la conservación de <italic>Allograpta obliqua</italic> (Diptera: Syrphidae), solo dos fueron atractivas para el importante depredador de <italic>D. citri</italic> en California. Se registraron 2.5 veces más depredadores y 3.5 veces más oviposturas en huertas con presencia de plantas florales, que en las que no las tuvieron.</p>
				<p>Cuando el parasitoide <italic>T. radiata</italic> se alimentó con néctar de <italic>Fagopyrum escu- lentum</italic>, su sobrevivencia se incrementó significativamente y las hembras tuvieron cinco veces más huevos que las alimentadas con otras fuentes de azucares. Así, la adición de plantas nectaríferas en huertas citrícolas pudiera potenciar la eficiencia de <italic>T. radiata</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Irvin y Hoddle, 2021</xref>). Al respecto, en el noroeste de Michoacán, México, de más de 27 especies de plantas fanerógamas evaluadas, solo 24 de ellas registraron parasitoides. Destacan plantas anuales como <italic>Stevia serrata</italic>; arbustos, como <italic>Senecio salignus y Budleja</italic> sp<italic>.;</italic> árboles como <italic>Thouinia villosa</italic>; y trepadoras como <italic>Serjania racemosa.</italic> En las flores de esas plantas se registraron &gt;14 Familias de himenópteros parasíticos (Datos sin publicar)<italic>.</italic></p>
				<p>La adición de néctar y polen por si sola no garantiza la prevalencia de EN en los agroecosistemas. Si faltan presas u hospederos para EN; éstos, como entomófagos que son, serán incapaces de completar su ciclo biológico, o se alejarán en busca de alimento, particularmente los parasitoides como <italic>T. radiata</italic>. La conservación de hospederos alternos es entonces fundamental para la permanencia de EN junto a los agroecosistemas.</p>
				<p>Conservación de hospederos alternos. Un ejemplo cercano a <italic>D. citri</italic> fue el con- trol biológico de <italic>T. erytreae</italic> con el parasitoide <italic>T. dryi</italic> en Isla Trinidad. <italic>Trioza easto- pi</italic> se alimenta en la maleza <italic>Litsea chinensis</italic> (Lauraceae) y funciona como hospede- ro alterno del parasitoide, el que logró incrementarse y controlar exitosamente a la plaga (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Duran-Vila y Bové, 2015</xref>).</p>
				<p>La especie <italic>Asclepias curassavica</italic> (Apocynaceae) hospeda fitófagos especialis- tas (&gt;9), incluidos los órdenes Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, y la subclase Acarina. Incluye especies como <italic>Aphis nerii</italic>, <italic>Danaus plexippus</italic> (Lepidop- tera: Nymphalydae), <italic>Euchaetes antica</italic> (Lepidoptera: Erebidae), <italic>Liriomyza ascle- piadis</italic> (Diptera: Agromyzidae) y el ácaro <italic>Eotetranychus typhae</italic> (Tetranychidae), entre otros (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Cortez-Madrigal <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f2">
						<label>Figura 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title><italic>Aphis nerii</italic> en <italic>Asclepias curassavica</italic> y algunos enemigos naturales asociados. A) <italic>Pseudodorus clavatus</italic>, B) <italic>Cycloneda sanguínea</italic>, C) Adulto de <italic>Oligota</italic>, D) Adulto de Chamaemyiidae, E) Momias y adultos de <italic>Lyci- phlebus testaceipes</italic>.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-02-RMEXFIT2307-3-gf2.png"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>En condiciones de campo de la Cienega de Chapala, Michoacán, los fitófagos especializados de <italic>A. curassavica</italic> reclutaron más de 20 especies de EN en huertas de cítricos; incluidos parasitoides de huevos, áfidos y minadores; así como una am- plia diversidad de depredadores, incluidas las familias Coccinellidae, Syrphidae, Chamaemyiidae, Chrysopidae, Staphylinidae, Cecidomyiidae; y en los órdenes Thysanoptera, Hemiptera, y ácaros de la familia Phytoseiidae, entre otros (Figura</p>
				<p>2) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Cortez-Madrigal <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>). De los coccinélidos registrados, <italic>O. v-nigrum</italic>,</p>
				<p><italic>H. convergens</italic> y <italic>C. sanguinea</italic> son depredadores importantes de <italic>D. citri</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Michaud, 2004</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Cortez-Mondaca <italic>et al</italic>., 2010</xref>).</p>
				<p>Estudios desarrollados en cítricos registraron una reducción importante de pla- gas del cultivo del limón persa <italic>Citrus x latifolia</italic> en donde se incorporó la planta <italic>A. curassavica</italic>; entre ellas, <italic>D. citri</italic>. Una explicación dada fue la abundancia de EN reclutados por <italic>A. curassavica</italic>, principalmente de las familias Coccinellidae, Syr- phidae, Chamaemyiidae y Chrysopidae (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Godoy-Ceja y Cortez-Madrigal, 2018</xref>).</p>
				<p>La mariposa monarca resultó ser un importante hospedero del parasitoide de huevos <italic>Trichogramma pretiosum</italic> (Trichogrammatidae), con parasitismo múltiple por huevo. En la región de estudio, <italic>T. pretiosum</italic> estuvo presente durante gran parte del año (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Cortez-Madrigal <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>), lo que pudo explicar la baja incidencia de larvas de lepidópteros plaga en cítricos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Godoy-Ceja y Cortez-Madrigal, 2018</xref>).</p>
				<p><bold>Dispositivos para conservar parasitoides <italic>in situ</italic>
</bold> . El objetivo es conservar <italic>in situ</italic> parasitoides de plagas sésiles o de baja movilidad. En recipientes con aberturas de emergencia y mallas selectivas, se deposita material vegetal infestado por la plaga, de modo que permitan la emergencia solo del parasitoide (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Kehrli <italic>et al</italic>., 2005</xref>). Otra modificación incluye jaulas que cubran plantas completas, adaptadas con aberturas de emergencia con malla selectiva (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Desurmont <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>) como la mencionada antes.</p>
				<p>Para la conservación de <italic>T. triozae</italic> (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), parasitoide de la paratrioza de las solanáceas (<italic>Bactericera cockerelli;</italic> Hemiptera: Triozidae), se determinó que una abertura de malla de 500 µm permitió hasta un 89 % de emer- gencia de parasitoides y retuvo los psílidos adultos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>). En condiciones de campo del cultivo de jitomate, el dispositivo favoreció &gt;80 % de parasitismo de la paratrioza (Datos sin publicar).</p>
				<p>Ese mismo dispositivo con modificaciones menores pudiera potenciar el control biológico de <italic>D. citri</italic>. Por ejemplo, mediante el diseño y uso de jaulas como las arriba descritas que cubran plantas de <italic>Murraya</italic> spp<italic>.</italic> con poblaciones de <italic>D. citri</italic> y</p>
				<p><italic>T. radiata.</italic> Las características vegetativas de <italic>M. paniculata</italic> hace que la planta se utilice en programas de cría masiva de <italic>T. radiata</italic> para su posterior liberación en campo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Parra <italic>et al.,</italic> 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">García-Ávila <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). Además de <italic>T. radiata</italic>, el em- pleo de los dispositivos pudiera también conservar HEPs del psílido. Por ejemplo, en periodos de estiaje y ausencia de brotación en cítricos de Yucatán, México, los setos de <italic>M. paniculata</italic> fue donde se registró prevalencia de <italic>H. citriformis</italic> (Cortez- Madrigal <italic>et al</italic>., 2013).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f3">
						<label>Figura 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Diferentes tipos de malla evaluadas en la emergencia selectiva de <italic>Tamarixia triozae</italic>, parasitoide de <italic>Bactericera cockerelli</italic> como modelo para implementar con <italic>D. citri</italic> y su parasitoide. A) Mallas de 700 x 700 µm, B) 700 x 900 µm, C) 500 µm.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-02-RMEXFIT2307-3-gf3.png"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Dispositivos para la conservación y autodiseminación de HEPs. Algunos auto- res sugieren el uso de la técnica de autodiseminación de HEPs para el manejo de <italic>D. citri</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Avery <italic>et al</italic>., 2010</xref>). Sin embargo, se han implementado pocos estudios. Así, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Patt <italic>et al</italic>. (2015</xref>) evaluaron dispositivos de color amarillo cebados con esporas de</p>
				<p><italic>I. fumosorosea</italic> en condiciones de invernadero. Después de 24 h, el 55 % de adul- tos fueron infectados con el entomopatógeno; cuando los cadáveres micosados se expusieron a ninfas sanas, &gt;90 % de ellas fueron infectadas. Las blastosporas en la trampa mostraron viabilidad hasta por 20 días, la que se redujo cuando las trampas se expusieron directamente al sol. En otro estudio mediante tarjetas amarillas im- pregnadas con esporas del mismo hongo, la mortalidad de adultos fue &lt;40 %; cuan- do se añadieron volátiles de los cítricos a las tarjetas, la mortalidad se incrementó en 23 % (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Moran <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>).</p>
				<p>En especies de hongos como <italic>H. citriformis</italic>, con bajo potencial para utilizarse de manera inundativa, la autodiseminación pudiera favorecer la conservación y desa- rrollo temprano de epizootias. En diferentes partes del mundo ocurren epizootias de <italic>H. citriformis</italic> en poblaciones de <italic>D. citri</italic>, con mortalidades variables; desde 75 % en Florida (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Hall <italic>et al</italic>., 2012</xref>), hasta 92 % en Rovirosa, Quintana Roo, México (Mora-Aguilera <italic>et al</italic>., 2017).</p>
				<p>La autodiseminación de HEPs pudiera favorecerse por el comportamiento de <italic>D. citri</italic>; entre otros, el apareamiento con múltiples parejas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">Wenninger y Hall, 2008</xref>), la preferencia de los machos por hembras positivas para copular, mayor capacidad de vuelo de adultos positivos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">Yamada <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>) y la atracción por trampas de color (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Moran <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>), entre otras. Adicionalmente, el posible desarrollo de una feromona sexual (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">Wenninger <italic>et al</italic>., 2008</xref>) del insecto pudiera potenciar la técnica de autodiseminación.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Análisis y perspectivas</title>
				<p>A pesar de los pronósticos catastróficos desde la aparición del HLB en 2009 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">Salcedo-Baca <italic>et al</italic>., 2010</xref>), los esfuerzos emprendidos en México han evitado los peores impactos de la enfermedad en la citricultura mexicana. Sin embargo, ocho años después de su aparición la enfermedad continúa su dispersión, y en 2017 ya se tenían registros en los 24 estados citrícolas del país (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">García-Ávila <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). Lo anterior demuestra que la citricultura nacional siempre estará en permanente riesgo por la presencia del patosistema <italic>D. citri</italic>-<italic>C</italic>Las. Recientes estudios señalan que al- gunos citricultores mexicanos han optado por cambiar de cultivo, lo que significará una reducción considerable en la producción citrícola nacional (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Granados-Ramírez <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>).</p>
				<p>Es claro que la investigación sobre el patosistema <italic>D. citri</italic>-<italic>C</italic>Las no ha con- cluido. Se requieren estrategias que reduzcan costos fitosanitarios, donde el CBPC tiene un importante papel que jugar. La presente revisión evidencia la ausencia de estudios y programas enfocados a la conservación de EN para <italic>D. citri</italic>, aun cuando se demuestra la importancia para su manejo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Qureshiy y Stansly, 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Irvin <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>;). <italic>E.g</italic>., se ha estimado que en huertas sin programas efectivos de CBPC, las pérdidas anuales estimadas pudieran alcanzar los 2 000 USD/ha (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Monzó y Stansly, 2020</xref>). Como referencia, el costo en aplicación de insecticidas en cítricos de Florida alcanzó los 3 000 USD/ha (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">García-Ávila <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). Por lo tanto, la viabilidad a largo plazo de las estrategias hasta ahora implementadas para el manejo del HLB deberían reconsiderarse (Monzó y Stansly, 2020).</p>
				<p>Las estrategias aquí planteadas para programas de CBPC en cítricos son senci- llas, y no perturbarían las medidas ya implementadas para el manejo del patosiste- ma <italic>D. citri</italic>-<italic>C</italic>Las. Un trabajo a futuro es evaluar especies de <italic>Murraya</italic> en la conser- vación de <italic>T. radiata</italic> mediante el diseño y uso de jaulas selectivas durante períodos de ausencia de ninfas de <italic>D. citri</italic> en cítricos. Además de proteger al parasitoide de aplicaciones de plaguicidas, se adelantarían sus poblaciones para sincronizarlas con el inicio de poblaciones de ninfas en cítricos. Otros estudios demuestran la factibilidad de modificar la secuencia de aparición plaga-EN en los agroecosis- temas, por la de EN-plaga, lo que se sabe potencia el CB (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Doutt y Nakata, 1973</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Jacas y Urbaneja, 2010</xref>).</p>
				<p>Existen numerosas especies de plantas que albergan fitófagos especializados que pudieran funcionar como presas alternas de depredadores en cítricos; es decir, con bajo riesgo de convertirse en plagas; un ejemplo es la familia Apocynaceae (=Asclepiadaceae). En México, la familia está ampliamente distribuida con &gt;300 especies en el país (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Juárez-Jaimes <italic>et al</italic>., 2007</xref>), de modo que existe un alto poten- cial para incluirlas en programas de CBPC de <italic>D. citri</italic>. Además de <italic>A. curassavica</italic>, las especies <italic>A. linaria, A. angustifolia</italic> y <italic>Mandevilla foliosa</italic> han registrado pobla- ciones de <italic>A. nerii, D. plexippus</italic> y chinches de la familia Lygaeidae. Incluso, plantas tolerantes a <italic>C</italic>Las, como <italic>M. koenigii</italic>, pudieran funcionar como planta trampa de <italic>D. citri</italic> y albergar EN; entre otros, <italic>T. radiata</italic>.</p>
				<p>En conjunto con hospederos alternos, la aportación de néctar y polen es funda- mental para el reclutamiento e incremento de la amplia diversidad de depredadores que inciden en <italic>D. citri</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Kondo <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>). La inclusión de plantas nectaríferas en cítricos para la conservación de EN de <italic>D. citri</italic> es un aspecto pobremente estudiado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Irvin <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>; Irvin y Hoddle, 2021). Estudios pioneros en México como los aquí descritos, pudieran utilizarse como punto de partida para el manejo del pato- sistema, principalmente en plantaciones jóvenes donde la ausencia de floración es evidente. A la par, debe investigarse que las plantas acompañantes no sean hospe- deras de <italic>D. citri</italic> y de otras plagas importantes.</p>
				<p>La atracción que presenta <italic>D. citri</italic> por el color amarillo abre posibilidades para utilizar trampas cebadas con entomopatógenos, y aprovechar al mismo insecto para su autodiseminación. La baja cantidad de inóculo utilizado y el bajo efecto en or- ganismos no blanco señalan a la autodiseminación como una herramienta de utili- dad en programas de CBPC del complejo <italic>D. citri</italic>-<italic>C</italic>Las. Una ventaja a destacar en vectores es el poder adelantar epizootias en la población (en bajas poblaciones), lo que presumiblemente retrasaría la dispersión e incidencia del HLB. Sin embargo, se requieren estudios epidemiológicos de campo y laboratorio que identifiquen las condiciones bióticas y abióticas que favorecen el desarrollo de epizootias; <italic>e.g</italic>., la caracterización de HEPs, donde se incluya entre otros, la velocidad de germinación a diferente temperatura y humedad. Existe la idea generalizada de que los HEPs requieren de alta humedad para su desarrollo (&gt;90 %; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">Tanada y Kaya, 1993</xref>); sin embargo, para su germinación y muerte del hospedero pudiera ser suficiente 53 % de humedad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Hastuti <italic>et al</italic>., 1999</xref>).</p>
				<p>Lo anterior abre posibilidades para identificar aislamientos más virulentos en</p>
				<p>ambientes adversos; por ejemplo, en regiones citrícolas con baja humedad macro- ambiental, pero condiciones microambientales favorables para los HEPs (<italic>e.g.</italic> riego). Sorprendentemente, de 28 artículos relacionados con HEPs en <italic>D. citri</italic>, ninguno aborda estudios relacionados con la respuesta de aislamientos a la hume- dad.</p>
				<p>Queda pendiente la evaluación de otros EN, como los nematodos entomopató- genos (NEPs). Observaciones preliminares demostraron que la especie <italic>Heterorha- bditis indica</italic> infecta y mata adultos de <italic>D. citri</italic> (datos sin publicar). Sin embargo, la aspersión de NEPs en follaje ha dado resultados incipientes, por lo que la pregunta entonces sería ¿Cómo pudieran aplicarse para <italic>D. citri</italic>? Una posible estrategia sería el uso de trampas atrayentes cebadas con juveniles de NEPs. La rapidez con la que mata a su hospedero hace de esos organismos una herramienta atractiva para el control de vectores de enfermedades como <italic>D. citri</italic>.</p>
				<p>La amplia diversidad del agroecosistema cítrico en México se plantea como una limitante en el manejo regional del patosistema <italic>D. citri</italic>-<italic>C</italic>Las (Mora-Aguilera, 2013). Sin embargo, el manejo local de plantaciones pequeñas y dispersas de cí- tricos, incluidas rutáceas ornamentales, ha demostrado ser también exitoso en el manejo de la enfermedad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">Uechi <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Esas experiencias deberían consi- derarse para su implementación en programas de CBPC en México e incentivar a productores a favorecer la diversificación del cultivo; por ejemplo, mediante ba- rreras rompevientos, una estrategia ya recomendada para reducir la dispersión del vector y del HLB (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">Stelinski, 2019</xref>). Si las barreras seleccionadas fuesen árboles con potencial nectarífero, su efecto sería doble: como barreras, y como atrayentes de EN y polinizadores.</p>
				<p>En suma, el aprovechamiento exitoso y sustentable de EN en programas de CBPC requiere de estudios ecológico/epidemiológicos. Es necesario visualizar a los EN como parte importante de comunidades con cadenas tróficas sofisticadas, lo que resulta en complejos sistemas de interacciones ecológico-epidemiológicas. El cultivo y la vegetación espontánea como primer nivel trófico tiene un rol integrador importante de esas cadenas tróficas, donde convergen entomófagos-entomopató- genos-fitófagos-fitopátógenos. Así, emergen complejas interacciones positivas y negativas en cada nivel trófico y los correspondientes beneficios (+) o perjuicios (-) para las especies consumidoras. <italic>E.g</italic>., el complejo depredador-parasitoide-entomo- patógeno (D-P-E) asociado con <italic>Toxoptera citricida</italic> favorece (+) indirectamente a</p>
				<p><italic>D. citri</italic>, y por tanto a <italic>C</italic>Las al suprimir la competencia por brotes vegetativos entre ambas plagas. Finalmente, todo el complejo D-P-E de <italic>D. citri</italic> y <italic>T. citricida</italic> favore- ce (+) la salud de los cítricos en general (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 4</xref>) (Mora <italic>et al</italic>., 2017).</p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusiones</title>
			<p>La principal estrategia de control de <italic>D. citri</italic> y <italic>C</italic>Las es mediante insecticidas, y el control biológico inundativo de <italic>T. radiata</italic> y algunas especies de HEPs de manera complementaria. Aunque ocurren epizootias naturales de hongos en <italic>D. citri</italic>, son pocos los estudios ecológicos/epidemiológicos que coadyuvan a la selección de aislamientos de HEPs con mayor racionalidad. Pocos estudios se han desarrollado para expandir su empleo en forma endofítica y mediante autodiseminación.</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f4">
					<label>Figura 4</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Sistema trófico fitosanitario en dos especies de cítricos (limón persa y naranja dulce) y la limo- naria <italic>M. paniculata</italic>, los que son infestados diferencialmente con dos especies plaga-vector (<italic>D. citri</italic> y <italic>T. citricida</italic>) y dos patógenos (Citrus tristeza virus y <italic>Candidatus</italic> Liberibacter asiaticus). Tomado de Mora <italic>et al</italic>. (2017).</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-02-RMEXFIT2307-3-gf4.png"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>Los depredadores de <italic>D. citri</italic> son reconocidos como uno de sus principales regu- ladores<italic>,</italic> incluso superior a <italic>T. radiata</italic> en diferentes partes del mundo; sin embargo, su amplia diversidad ha sido pobremente aprovechada en el manejo del patosiste- ma, principalmente por la interferencia del control químico y la simplicidad ecoló- gica del cultivo.</p>
			<p>Es evidente la ausencia de estudios sobre control biológico por conservación de</p>
			<p><italic>D. citri</italic>, aun cuando se menciona reiteradamente su importancia. Su implementa- ción pudiera potenciar, no solo el control biológico de <italic>D. citri-C</italic>Las, sino también la autorregulación de plagas de cítricos en general. Se requiere de un mayor esfuer- zo y entendimiento por todos los sectores involucrados: instituciones, gobierno, investigadores, técnicos, productores y sociedad en general. El reto es grande, pero la amplia diversidad de regiones y sistemas de producción citrícola en México pu- diera favorecer lo que sería una primera aproximación a la idea del control biológi- co integral: por conservación, clásico e inundativo.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
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	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="en">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Conservation of natural enemies of <italic>Diaphorina citri</italic> and their impact on Huanglongbing: Analysis and perspectives</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<abstract>
				<title>ABSTRACT</title>
				<p><italic>Diaphorina citri</italic> is the main vector of <italic>Candidatus</italic> Liberibacter asiaticus (<italic>C</italic>Las), the causative agent of HLB, the most devastating citrus disease. Although the importance of biological control is recognized, insecticides are the main control tool used. Its use in citrus should be cautious, as it could interfere with the biocontrol of exotic pests already present. <italic>Diaphorina citri</italic> has a wide range of natural enemies; however, only the parasitoid <italic>Tamarixia radiata</italic> and some species of entomopathogenic fungi are used inundatively. Although the main predators of the vector occur naturally, few studies address their conservation <italic>in situ</italic>. This review supports the idea that the conservation of natural enemies should be the basis of the integrated management of <italic>D. citri</italic> and <italic>C</italic>Las. The conservation of alternate hosts, the inclusion of nectar plants, <italic>in situ</italic> conservation of parasitoids, and the autodissemination of entomopathogenic fungi are proposed. Studies carried out on conservation of natural enemies of <italic>D. citri</italic> and related pests, their probable impact on the disease, and prospects for implementation in Mexico are analyzed and discussed. The proposed strategies could enhance not only the biological control of</p>
				<p><italic>D. citri</italic>-<italic>C</italic>Las, but also the autoregulation of citrus pests in general.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords</title>
				<kwd>Asian citrus psyllid</kwd>
				<kwd>biocontrol</kwd>
				<kwd>Tamarixia radiata</kwd>
				<kwd>entomopathogenic fungi</kwd>
				<kwd>conservation</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introduction</title>
				<p>With over 600,000 hectares and a production exceeding 8 million tons in 2021, Mexico stands as one of the leading citrus producers. The economic contribution reached approximately 35 million pesos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">SIAP, 2022</xref>), underscoring the significance of these crops within the country’s economic sector. Their production spans across 24 out of the 32 states comprising Mexico, from the Yucatan Peninsula to Tamaulipas along the Gulf of Mexico, and from Chiapas to Sonora and the Baja California Peninsula along the Pacific (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">Salcedo-Baca <italic>et al</italic>., 2010</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">García-Ávila <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>).</p>
				<p>However, citrus crops face a plethora of phytosanitary challenges globally. Unlike other crops, successful cases of classical biological control occur within citrus cultivation. For instance, in Mexico, the cottony cushion scale (<italic>Icerya purchasi</italic>) is managed through the ladybird beetle <italic>Rodolia cardinalis</italic> and the citrus blackfly (<italic>Aleurocanthus woglumi</italic>), regulated by the parasitoid <italic>Encarsia perplexa</italic>, among others (Trevor <italic>et al.,</italic> 2013).</p>
				<p>This distinctive characteristic renders citrus cultivation unique. Unlike in other crops where chemical control forms the cornerstone of pest management, pesticides in citrus cultivation must be handled with greater caution. Their misuse could disrupt the achieved ecological balance and potentially lead to the resurgence of significant pests (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">Qureshi and Stansly, 2009</xref>), as mentioned above.</p>
				<p>In recent years, Mexico has witnessed new invasions of exotic pests, prominently the Asian citrus psyllid, <italic>Diaphorina citri</italic> (Hemiptera: Leviidae), which along with <italic>Trioza erytreae</italic> (Hemiptera: Triozidae), serves as a vector for <italic>Candidatus</italic> Liberibacter asiaticus (<italic>C</italic>Las), the causal agent of Huanglongbing (HLB). Following the psyllid’s introduction in 2002, HLB was first documented in 2009 in Yucatan. Since then, the disease has spread to various regions, encompassing 24 citrus- producing states (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">García-Ávila <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). The risks posed by the <italic>D. citri-C</italic>Las pathosystem in Mexican citriculture (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">Salcedo-Baca <italic>et al.</italic>, 2010</xref>) prompted the development of integrated management strategies, highlighting chemical control alongside complementary biological approaches (García-Ávila <italic>et al</italic>., 2021).</p>
				<p>In Mexico, the psyllid boasts a diverse array of natural enemies (NE), including one of its primary parasitoids, <italic>Tamarixia radiata</italic> (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Cortez-Mondaca <italic>et al.</italic>, 2010</xref>; Mora-Aguilera, 2013). Although widely distributed in Mexican citrus zones, levels of parasitism remain insufficient (3-26%) for the natural regulation of the pest and <italic>C</italic>Las (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Halbert and Manjunath, 2004</xref>; García- Ávila <italic>et al</italic>., 2021). To enhance biological control (BC) of <italic>D. citri</italic> and mitigate <italic>C</italic>Las dispersal risks, the Mexican government has endeavored to establish a program of inundative biological control (IBC) utilizing the parasitoid <italic>T. radiata</italic> in citrus regions across the country (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">García-Ávila <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). Despite scientific literature stressing the importance of conserving NE in <italic>D. citri</italic> management, research in this realm remains scarce globally (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">Qureshi and Stansly, 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Irvin <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>; Irvin and Hoddle, 2021), with documented studies in Mexico being nascent (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Godoy-Ceja and Cortez-Madrigal, 2018</xref>).</p>
				<p>Under the premise that integrated pest management (IPM) should rely on NE conservation, and insecticide application should occur only upon reaching an economic threshold (ET), this paper aims to analyze the status of <italic>D. citri-C</italic>Las pathosystem management globally, particularly in Mexico. Based on this, it proposes conservation strategies extending beyond <italic>D. citri</italic> biological control to encompass the regulation of other citrus phytophagous (including pests).</p>
				<sec>
					<title>The citrus agroecosystem in Mexico</title>
					<p>Cultivated citrus traces its origins back to Southeast Asia, where its evolutionary journey spans roughly 8 million years (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Ibanez <italic>et al.,</italic> 2015</xref>). Recognizing the geographical birthplace of a crop holds pivotal importance in combating exotic pests, often necessitating the exploration and importation of natural enemies from their native habitats. Over time, the citrus industry in Mexico has contended with a spectrum of exotic pests, some of which have been effectively managed through classical biological control methods (Trevor <italic>et al.,</italic> 2013).</p>
					<p>In Mexico, citrus cultivation sprawls across 24 of the nation’s 32 states (García- Ávila <italic>et al.,</italic> 2021). These regions boast diverse soil compositions, climatic variations, and cultural influences, all of which profoundly shape the design and management of the agroecosystem, including the dynamics of the <italic>D. citri-C</italic>Las pathosystem. Consequently, factors like wind patterns and orchard distribution have contributed to variations in the severity of Huanglongbing (HLB) outbreaks across different citrus regions, such as those along the Mexican Pacific versus the Yucatan Peninsula (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Mora-Aguilera, 2013</xref>).</p>
					<p>Similar to their counterparts elsewhere, Mexican citrus growers exhibit distinct characteristics, necessitating consideration of their typology. This entails understanding their profiles based on factors like land holdings, technological adoption, and educational backgrounds (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">Rosales-Martínez <italic>et al.,</italic> 2018</xref>). Such insights could facilitate tailored programs, including initiatives for conserving natural enemies. Consequently, the socioeconomic and cultural contexts of small- scale producers influence plantation features, ranging from mono-crops with weed tolerance (common in the Yucatan Peninsula) to intricate polycultures like the coffee-plantain-citrus system observed in certain regions of Veracruz (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Aguilar <italic>et al</italic>., 2014</xref>). These agricultural models contrast starkly with extensive monocultures found in other parts of the country, such as Huimanguillo, Tabasco. Such variations extend to management practices, notably pesticide use, which is pivotal for implementing Conservation Biological Control (CBC) strategies (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Gurr and You, 2016</xref>).</p>
					<p>While some citrus plantations benefit from irrigation systems, the majority of Mexican citrus farming (63%) relies on rainfed agriculture (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">García-Ávila <italic>et al.,</italic> 2021</xref>). Nonetheless, certain regions harbor conditions conducive to thriving populations of natural enemies. For instance, in Rovirosa, Quintana Roo, high relative humidity has fostered natural epizootics of the fungus <italic>Hirsutella citriformis</italic> in <italic>D. citri</italic> (Mora-Aguilera <italic>et al</italic>., 2017), underscoring the potential of entomopathogenic fungi (EPFs) as crucial tools for managing the <italic>D. citri-C</italic>Las complex in such areas.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title><bold>The Citrus-<italic>Diaphorina citri-C</italic>Las pathosystem</bold></title>
					<p>In 2002, <italic>D. citri</italic> was introduced to Mexico and is now distributed across all citrus-growing areas of the country (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">García-Ávila <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). Apart from the direct damage it causes to citrus, <italic>D. citri</italic> serves as a vector for Gram-negative α-Proteobacteria of the genus <italic>Candidatus</italic> Liberibacter spp., the causal agent of HLB (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Galdeano <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). Three species are involved: <italic>C</italic>L. africanus, <italic>C</italic>L. americanus, and <italic>C</italic>L. asiaticus, with the latter being the most prevalent worldwide (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Thakuria <italic>et al.,</italic> 2023</xref>). HLB damages and losses vary between countries, regions, and hosts. For example, in Brazil, losses in sweet orange fluctuated from 17.5-42%, while in Mexico, losses vary according to the crop and region, ranging from 17% for Persian lime in Yucatan to 62% for Mexican lime in Colima (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Mora Aguilera <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014</xref>). In a scenario of low HLB intensity in Mexico, losses of 1.84 million tons of citrus are estimated, representing 25% of the national production, with losses of 4 million workdays (Salcedo <italic>et al</italic>., 2010).</p>
					<p>The concept of an “epidemic” as an imbalance between populations can be applied to the citrus-<italic>D. citri-C</italic>Las pathosystem, where knowledge of its biology and ecology can make the difference between the success or failure of management programs. As a guide, the concept of an “epidemiological system” could be applied, conceived as an open system of n-factors operating in time and space to determine the incidence of an epidemic (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 1</xref>) (Mora-Aguilera <italic>et al.,</italic> 2017).</p>
					<p>For <italic>D. citri</italic>, the optimal temperature fluctuates between 25-28 °C, with development ceasing between 10 and 33°C (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Liu and Tsai, 2000</xref>). Females cease oviposition when temperatures remain at 34 °C for five consecutive days; once temperatures decrease, adults resume oviposition (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">Skelley and Hoy, 2004</xref>). Conversely, <italic>C</italic>Las does not tolerate temperatures &gt;35 °C (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Thakuria <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). The number of eggs per <italic>D. citri</italic> female decreases when relative humidity remains below 40% (Skelley and Hoy, 2004).</p>
					<p>Moreover, humidity indirectly affects <italic>D. citri</italic> by favoring the prevalence of EPFs that reduce insect populations (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Aubert, 1987</xref>). An interaction between light rainfall and high temperatures indirectly favored <italic>D. citri</italic> populations by promoting greater leaf flush in trees, a factor directly correlated with vector populations and HLB incidence (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Leong <italic>et al.,</italic> 2020</xref>). Wind is another key factor in <italic>D. citri</italic> and <italic>C</italic>Las dispersion. It has been documented that the psyllid can fly up to 2.4 km in the absence of wind. In the presence of wind, some estimates suggest the insect could disperse up to 4 km (Mora-Aguilera, 2013) or even 470 km (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">Stelinski, 2019</xref>).</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f5">
							<label>Figure 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Epidemiological System defined by the interaction of factors that determine an epidemic process: pest species, entomopathogen, predator, and parasitoid, crop, agronomic management, climate, and any other specific factor (ni), all of which operate at different spatial-temporal levels (Adapted from Mora-Aguilera <italic>et al</italic>., 2017).</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-02-RMEXFIT2307-3-gf5.jpg"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>Under such circumstances, wind currents were one of the factors favoring the rapid spread of HLB in Mexico (Mora <italic>et al.,</italic> 2013).</p>
					<p>Overwintering adult <italic>D. citri</italic>, especially females, have a longer survival time (8-9 months) and congregate on the undersides of leaves. Nymphs are sedentary, but newly emerged individuals may migrate to neighboring shoots or move within the same shoot, but never to mature leaves (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">Yang <italic>et al.,</italic> 2006</xref>). An aspect of ecological interest for vector and <italic>C</italic>Las management is that both males and females mate multiple times with different partners, and there is evidence that the female emits a sexual pheromone to attract her mate (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">Wenninger and Hall, 2008</xref>). Egg production in <italic>D. citri</italic> varies depending on the host. For example, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">Tsai and Liu (2000</xref>) obtained an average of 857.9 eggs on grapefruit, while <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Nava <italic>et al</italic>. (2007</xref>) recorded 348.4 eggs on <italic>Murraya paniculata</italic>.</p>
					<p><italic>Diaphorina citri</italic> eggs are exclusively laid on vegetative shoots, and nymphs only develop on them; thus, their population fluctuation is positively correlated with these phenological periods (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Leong <italic>et al.,</italic> 2020</xref>). The greatest damage from <italic>D. citri</italic> usually occurs during autumn leaf flush (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">Yang <italic>et al.,</italic> 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Godoy-Ceja and Cortez-Madrigal, 2018</xref>). Under tropical conditions such as those in India, up to nine generations can occur. Based on temperature, favorable psyllid days, and planted area, estimates for Mexico suggest anywhere from 15 to 34 annual generations (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Díaz-Padilla <italic>et al.,</italic> 2014</xref>). <italic>Diaphorina citri</italic> is strongly attracted to the color yellow (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Patt <italic>et al.,</italic> 2015</xref>).</p>
					<p>The relationship between <italic>D. citri</italic> and <italic>C</italic>Las is of a propagative-circulative nature (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Galdeano <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>), and once the pathogen is acquired, the insect remains infective throughout its life; however, transovarial transmission has not been recorded (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Halbert and Manjunath, 2004</xref>). According to <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Inoue <italic>et al.</italic> (2009</xref>), insects that acquire the bacterium in the adult stage show poor efficiency as vectors; conversely, those that acquire the pathogen in the nymphal stage are more efficient as vectors. The low concentration of bacteria in the adult insect led to low transmission to the plant; however, when the psyllid feeds in the nymphal stage on an infected plant, the bacteria concentration increases significantly, and transmission occurs in up to 67% of healthy plants. The incubation period of <italic>C</italic>Las in the host can be up to six months (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Aleman <italic>et al.,</italic> 2007</xref>).</p>
					<p>It has been proven that <italic>C</italic>Las requires amino acids obtained from the host plant and from <italic>D. citri</italic>. There is ample evidence that <italic>C</italic>Las can manipulate the behavior and performance of the vector, thus increasing the transmissibility and spread of the pathogen. This occurs both within the vector and through intermediation of the infected plant. Positive vectors exhibit higher fertility, fecundity, and developmental rates; however, survival is reduced. Nevertheless, <italic>C</italic>Las favors the increase in positive populations of <italic>D. citri</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">Yamada <italic>et al.,</italic> 2019</xref>).</p>
					<p>Other intriguing aspects of the citrus-<italic>D. citri</italic>-<italic>C</italic>Las relationship include the fact that positive adult insects exhibit greater flight capability than negative psyllids. Their preference for volatiles in diseased plants is evident; however, once infected, the insects disperse towards healthy plants (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">Yamada <italic>et al.,</italic> 2019</xref>). This, coupled with the females’ avoidance of infested shoots, facilitates disease spread. The psyllid is initially distributed in clusters, then randomly, and once again in clusters (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Leong <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). <italic>C</italic>Las manipulation extends even to mating; for instance, <italic>D. citri</italic> males showed greater attraction to positive females than to healthy ones. Additionally, the parasitoid <italic>T. radiata</italic> is primarily attracted to diseased plants (Yamada <italic>et al</italic>., 2019). The psyllid’s immune system is also altered by <italic>C</italic>Las. In positive adults, the concentration of oxidases and esterases is significantly reduced. These enzymes are crucial for insecticide detoxification; hence, positive insects are more susceptible to insecticides, including entomopathogenic fungi (Yamada <italic>et al</italic>., 2019). This has practical implications for NE conservation; for example, using entomopathogenic fungi or minimal doses of insecticides targeted at positive insects would cause less harm to NE.</p>
					<p>Like other vectors, <italic>D. citri’s</italic> immune system is incomplete; thus, the insect’s associated endosymbionts contribute to the production of defense metabolites against invaders, such as <italic>C</italic>Las and NE (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">Yamada <italic>et al.,</italic> 2019</xref>). In positive psyllids, the production of “diaphorin,” a polyketide with toxic effects on insects, increased; therefore, it could limit the activity of some psyllid NE, such as the coccinellid <italic>Harmonia axyridis</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Galdeano <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). No research has been conducted to elucidate these interactions, such as levels of parasitism by <italic>T. radiata</italic> on positive psyllids.</p>
					<p>For <italic>D. citri</italic>, 59 host species from the Rutaceae family have been recorded (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Halbert and Manjunath, 2004</xref>). Additionally, the psyllid can feed on <italic>Celtis</italic> spp. and <italic>Solanum tuberosum</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">Stelinski, 2019</xref>). Recently, <italic>Cordia myxa</italic> (Boraginaceae) was reported as a host for <italic>D. citri</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Arshad <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>), suggesting that the psyllid (and probably <italic>C</italic>Las) may have previously unrecorded hosts, particularly in regions where the <italic>D. citri-C</italic>Las complex has been recently introduced.</p>
					<p>Grafting experiments have demonstrated the susceptibility of nearly all cultivated citrus to <italic>C</italic>Las. <italic>Citrus sinensis</italic> is typically the most susceptible species, while <italic>C. aurantiifolia</italic> is the most tolerant (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Thakuria <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). Ornamental species of <italic>Murraya</italic> spp. are also hosts for <italic>C</italic>Las. Although <italic>M. paniculata</italic> can act as a bridge host in <italic>C</italic>Las dissemination, the significant decrease in bacterial titer after five months suggests that this species is of little importance as a <italic>C</italic>Las host (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Damsteegt <italic>et al</italic>., 2010</xref>). In contrast, <italic>M. koenigii</italic> showed tolerance to <italic>C</italic>Las, suggesting its use as a trap plant (Beloti <italic>et al.,</italic> 2018).</p>
					<p>Moreover, <italic>C</italic>Las was successfully transmitted via <italic>Cuscuta</italic> spp. to plants outside the Rutaceae family, such as <italic>Catharanthus roseus</italic> (Apocynaceae) and different solanaceous plantas. In <italic>Pithecillobium lucidum</italic> (Fabaceae) <italic>C</italic>Las was recorded even though no psyllids were recorded (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Thakuria <italic>et al.,</italic> 2023</xref>). Additionally, <italic>C</italic>Las was detected via PCR in <italic>Cleome rutidosperma</italic> (Capparaceae), <italic>Pisonia aculeata</italic> (Nyctaginaceae), and <italic>Trichostigma actandrum</italic> (Phytolaccaceae) without records of psyllids or HLB symptoms (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Brown et al., 2014</xref>).</p>
					<p>In 2010, adult <italic>D. citri</italic> were recorded on glandular trichomes of <italic>Sicydium tamnifolium</italic> (Cucurbitaceae) on <italic>M. paniculata</italic> plants in Chetumal, Q.R., Mexico. This species is distributed only along the Gulf of Mexico and Chiapas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Lira, 2004</xref>). Although its role as a host for <italic>D. citri</italic> is unknown, these preliminary observations suggest that <italic>S. tamnifolium</italic> could be utilized as a trap plant for <italic>D. citri</italic> and other pests. However, it is necessary to elucidate the pros and cons of its use, such as interference with biological control, crop interference, potential pest reservoir, and economic considerations.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title><bold>Management of <italic>Diaphorina citri-C</italic>Las</bold></title>
					<p>Once <italic>C</italic>Las infects its host, it is difficult to eradicate, despite numerous studies demonstrating control possibilities, such as through cultural, chemical, and biological control; thermotherapy, defense inducers, and genetic manipulation for resistance (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Thakuria <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). However, in practice, HLB management includes preventive measures, including the production of healthy plants (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">Yang <italic>et al</italic>., 2006</xref>), eradication of diseased plants, and legal control (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">García-Ávila <italic>et al.,</italic> 2021</xref>), but primarily through vector control (Yang <italic>et al</italic>., 2006; García-Ávila <italic>et al</italic>., 2021). Although integrated management of <italic>D. citri</italic> is proposed, greater attention is focused on chemical control (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">Qureshi and Stansly, 2007</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Parra and Coelho, 2019</xref>), with biological control only being complementary (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Etienne <italic>et al</italic>., 2001</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">Salcedo-Baca <italic>et al.,</italic> 2010</xref>). However, when <italic>C</italic>Las is present in commercial orchards, chemical control is recommended (Parra and Coelho, 2019; García-Ávila <italic>et al.,</italic> 2021).</p>
					<p>Following the introduction of the <italic>D. citri-C</italic>Las complex in Brazil, insecticide applications increased by over 600% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Parra <italic>et al.,</italic> 2016</xref>). Seen in this light, chemical control could have a detrimental impact on the environment and on natural enemy populations (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">Qureshi and Stansly, 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Monzó and Stansly, 2020</xref>). For disease vectors, the ET is practically the absence of pests. For instance, the transmission rate of <italic>C</italic>Las by adult <italic>D. citri</italic> to <italic>Citrus depressa</italic> plants was estimated at 8.5% when one adult was introduced per plant, with a two-week inoculation access period (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">Ukuda-Hosokawa <italic>et al.,</italic> 2015</xref>). Only a few ET have been proposed for its control; for example, in Florida, five adults and three nymphs per flush are suggested (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Halbert and Manjunath, 2004</xref>), or 0.2-0.7 adults per flush and 0.2 adults per trap (Monzo and Stansly, 2015). In Mexico, a proposed ET is one adult per trap (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">Yzquierdo-Álvarez, 2021</xref>).</p>
					<p><italic>Diaphorina citri</italic> has a wide range of natural enemies, including predators, parasitoids, and entomopathogens (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">Yang <italic>et al.,</italic> 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">Qureshi and Stansly, 2007</xref>), which presumably should also reduce disease incidence and prevalence.</p>
					<p>Entomophagous. Records worldwide document 95 arthropod species (spiders and insects) across nine orders and 23 families (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Kondo <italic>et al.,</italic> 2015</xref>), with varying impacts on <italic>D. citri</italic>. For instance, in Saudi Arabia, the Order Araneae contributed up to 33.6% to vector reduction (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Halbert and Manjunath, 2004</xref>). In Florida, predators contribute up to 100% to <italic>D. citri</italic> control (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">Qureshi <italic>et al.,</italic> 2009</xref>). These include species of Araneae, Hemerobiidae, Syrphidae, and Anthocoridae, with lady beetles such as <italic>H. axyridis</italic>, <italic>Olla v-nigrum</italic>, and <italic>Cycloneda sanguinea</italic> being notable (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Michaud, 2004</xref>). In Colombia, 16 natural enemy species from six families and five orders affecting <italic>D. citri</italic> have been recorded (Kondo <italic>et al.,</italic> 2015). Conversely, extensive insecticide applications in Brazil limited the impact of predators on psyllid biological control (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Parra <italic>et al.,</italic> 2016</xref>). In Mexico, 20 species of entomophagous insects have been recorded, including families Coccinellidae, Chrysopidae, Anthocoridae, and Vespidae, with the first two being more prevalent. Additionally, entomopathogenic fungi such as <italic>Beauveria bassiana</italic> and <italic>Hirsutella citriformis</italic> have been isolated from <italic>D. citri</italic> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 1</xref>).</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t2">
							<label>Table 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Natural enemies associated with <italic>D. citri</italic> in citrus orchards in Mexico.</title>
							</caption>
							<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th>Family/Species </th>
										<th>Reference </th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-weight:bold">Coccinellidae </td>
										<td> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style:italic">H. axyridis</td>
										<td>Mora-Aguilera, 2013 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style:italic">O. v-nigrum</td>
										<td> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style:italic">C. sanguinea</td>
										<td>Cortez-Mondaca et al., 2010 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style:italic">Chilocorus cacti</td>
										<td>Mora-Aguilera, 2013 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style:italic">Hippodamia convergens</td>
										<td> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style:italic">Scymnus sp. </td>
										<td> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style:italic">Arawana sp. </td>
										<td>Lozano-Contreras y Jasso-Argumedo, 2012 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style:italic">Azya orbigera</td>
										<td> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style:italic">Delphastus sp. </td>
										<td> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style:italic">Zagloba sp. </td>
										<td> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-weight:bold">Chrysopidae </td>
										<td> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style:italic">Ceraeocrhysa sp. </td>
										<td>Lozano-Contreras y Jasso-Argumedo, 2012 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style:italic">C. cubana</td>
										<td> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style:italic">C. claveri</td>
										<td> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style:italic">C. valida</td>
										<td> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style:italic">C. everes</td>
										<td> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style:italic">Chrysoperla rufrilabris</td>
										<td>Cortez-Mondaca et al., 2010 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style:italic">Ch. comanche</td>
										<td> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style:italic">Chrysoperla sp. </td>
										<td>Mora-Aguilera, 2013 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-weight:bold">Anthocoridae Orius spp. </td>
										<td>Cortez-Mondaca et al., 2011 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-weight:bold">Eulophidae T. radiata</td>
										<td> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-weight:bold">Encyrtidae Diaphorencyrtus spp. </td>
										<td> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-weight:bold">Globorotallidae H. citriformis</td>
										<td>Mora-Aguilera et al., 2017 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-weight:bold">Clavicitaceae B. bassiana</td>
										<td> </td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<p>The primary focus of biological control against <italic>D. citri</italic> has been the introduction of its parasitoids, <italic>T. radiata</italic> and <italic>Diaphorencyrtus aligarhensis</italic> (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Halbert and Manjunath, 2004</xref>), although the former has received more attention. However, parasitism levels have been variable, ranging from 28.9-36.4% in Taiwan (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Chiu <italic>et al</italic>., 1988</xref>) to 100% in Reunion Island, France (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Etienne <italic>et al.,</italic> 2001</xref>).</p>
					<p>In Florida, <italic>T. radiata</italic> has been a relatively minor mortality factor for <italic>D. citri</italic>, with levels below 20% in spring-summer, but reaching 39-56% in autumn (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">Qureshi <italic>et al.,</italic> 2009</xref>). In Puerto Rico, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Pluke <italic>et al.</italic> (2008</xref>) reported parasitism levels of 70- 100%, while in Sinaloa, Mexico, natural parasitism rates of up to 59.6% were recorded (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Cortez-Mondaca <italic>et al</italic>., 2010</xref>). The effectiveness of <italic>T. radiata</italic> is strongly limited by the presence of hyperparasitoids (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Aubert, 1987</xref>), pesticide use (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Diniz <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>), absence of hosts in critical periods (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Leong <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>), and lack of nectar and pollen (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Irvin and Hoddle, 2021</xref>).</p>
					<p>Due to the variability in <italic>T. radiata</italic> parasitism, the greatest effort has been focused on mass rearing and release (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Parra <italic>et al.,</italic> 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Flores and Ciomperlik, 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">García-Ávila <italic>et al.,</italic> 2021</xref>). However, in commercial orchards, this strategy is incompatible with pesticides (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Diniz <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). Thus, biological control is only practiced in backyard orchards, urban areas, and abandoned plantations, with scientific evidence of reducing <italic>D. citri</italic> and HLB incidence in commercial orchards (Parra <italic>et al.,</italic> 2016; Diniz <italic>et al.,</italic> 2020; García-Ávila <italic>et al.,</italic> 2021). For example, in Texas, USA, after releasing <italic>T. radiata</italic>, vector reduction exceeded 91% (Flores and Ciomperlik, 2017). In countries like Brazil, parasitism levels reached 72.5% after parasitoid release (Parra <italic>et al</italic>., 2016). In Mexico, it is mentioned that natural parasitism by <italic>T. radiata</italic> (3-26%) increased to 85% after mass releases (García- Ávila <italic>et al</italic>., 2021).</p>
					<p>Entomopathogenic fungi. Prominent among these species are <italic>H. citriformis</italic>, <italic>B. bassiana</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">Padulla and Alves, 2021</xref>), <italic>Isaria fumosorosea</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Gallou <italic>et al.,</italic> 2016</xref>), and <italic>Metarhizium anisopliae</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Ayala-Zermeño <italic>et al.,</italic> 2015</xref>). However, only <italic>H. citriformis</italic>, <italic>B. bassiana</italic>, and <italic>I. fumosorosea</italic> (=<italic>Paecilomyces fumosoroseus</italic>) have been isolated from the insect (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Halbert and Manjunath, 2004</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Meyer <italic>et al</italic>., 2008</xref>; Mora-Aguilera <italic>et al.,</italic> 2017). These entomopathogenic fungi have mainly been evaluated using inundative strategy (<italic>i.e</italic>., spraying); in Brazil, their field application achieved mortality levels of 57.8% to 96.1%, directly correlated with humidity and inversely with temperature (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Saldarriaga-Ausique <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>).</p>
					<p>In Mexico, EPFs represent a significant tool against <italic>D. citri</italic> and <italic>C</italic>Las in commercial citrus orchards (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">García-Ávila <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). After assessing <italic>Cordyceps bassiana</italic>, <italic>M. anisopliae</italic>, and <italic>I. fumosorosea</italic> in Colima, Mexico, the highest mortality in nymphs (60%) and adults (50%) was achieved with <italic>C. bassiana</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Lezama-Gutiérrez <italic>et al.,</italic> 2012</xref>). Under field conditions, <italic>I. javanica</italic> (=<italic>fumosorosea</italic>) achieved mortality rates of 66-81.8% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Gallou <italic>et al.,</italic> 2016</xref>).</p>
					<p>EPFs can also colonize plant tissues. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Bamisile <italic>et al.</italic> (2021</xref>) assessed the endophytic capability of <italic>B. bassiana</italic> and <italic>I. fumosorosea</italic>, finding that only the former colonized citrus tissues. Seven days after inoculation, mortality in <italic>D. citri</italic> adults ranged from 10% to 15%, and there was a significant reduction in egg deposition by females feeding on treated plants.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title><bold>Beyond biological control of the <italic>D. citri-</italic>HLB pathosystem: the conservation of natural enemies</bold></title>
					<p>There’s a prevailing notion that once <italic>C</italic>Las takes hold, the biological control (BC) of <italic>D. citri</italic> becomes inconsequential for managing HLB (Helbert and Manjunath, 2004; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">Yang <italic>et al.,</italic> 2006</xref>). This might hold true if we consider BC as simply mirroring chemical control: aiming to drastically reduce pest populations. However, shifting away from the conventional and atomistic paradigm of pest management and its derived inundative biological control (IBC), we can discern a natural phenomenon of population self-regulation so potent that conservation biological control (CBC) should form the bedrock of IPM.</p>
					<p>CBC encompasses all measures aimed at environmental modification and pesticide management to favor the conservation and proliferation of beneficial organisms (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Gurr and You, 2016</xref>). Despite being the linchpin of biological control, CBC garners minimal attention (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Cortez-Madrigal and Gutiérrez-Cárdenas, 2023</xref>). This is largely due to modern agricultural practices being geared towards productivity rather than the preservation of beneficial organisms. Various strategies are proposed for their conservation, including pesticide management, devices for <italic>in situ</italic> conservation and augmentation of parasitoids (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Kehrli <italic>et al.,</italic> 2005</xref>), provision of alternate food sources such as nectar, pollen (Gurr and Wratten, 1999; Gurr and You, 2016) and alternate hosts (Cortez-Madrigal and Gutiérrez-Cárdenas, 2023).</p>
					<p>When beneficial organisms lack alternative food sources in a crop, they migrate to areas where sustenance is available, undercutting the presence of functional populations of beneficial organisms (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Cortez-Madrigal and Gutiérrez-Cárdenas, 2023</xref>) or delaying their arrival to such an extent that BC becomes ineffective (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Doutt and Nakata, 1973</xref>). This scenario can be altered by redesigning the agroecosystem to support the permanent establishment of parasitoids, predators, and entomopathogens before the pest appears, not only of insects and mites but of the entire spectrum of organisms involved in population self-regulation within ecosystems; a holistic view of CBC: “beyond biological control” (Cortez-Madrigal and Gutiérrez-Cárdenas, 2023).</p>
					<p>Though the economic benefits of CBC in regulating <italic>D. citri</italic> populations have been validated (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Monzó and Stansly, 2020</xref>), there’s a dearth of documented studies (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Irvin <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Irvin and Hoddle, 2021</xref>). Some conservation strategies for beneficial organisms evaluated in <italic>D. citri</italic> or related pests include nectar-rich flora, alternate hosts for beneficial organisms, <italic>in</italic>-<italic>situ</italic> conservation and augmentation devices for parasitoids, and the self-propagation of entomopathogens.</p>
					<p>Unlike classical and inundative biological control, CBC is often cost-effective; it may even enhance the other two BC strategies. It’s been argued, for instance, that the failures of various classical BC programs stem from the absence of alternate hosts to sustain newly introduced beneficial organisms during specific periods (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Gurr and Wratten, 1999</xref>). Could this be the case for <italic>T. radiata</italic>?</p>
					<p>Should agroecosystem conditions favor the establishment of beneficial organisms, IBC could also be bolstered with fewer releases. The proposition integrating classical, inundative, and conservation biological control has been dubbed “integrated biological control” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Gurr and Wratten, 1999</xref>). Citrus cultivation in Mexico could serve as an initial model for integrated biological control.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title><bold>Enhancing the biological control of <italic>D. citri</italic>
</bold></title>
					<p>Inclusion and conservation of nectariferous plants. Due to prevailing crop conditions, the parasitoid <italic>T. radiata</italic> is necessarily absent from citrus for much of the year. One strategy for its conservation involves incorporating nectar-bearing plants to attract beneficial insect populations. However, not all nectar-bearing species are equally attractive, necessitating specific studies. For instance, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Irvin <italic>et al</italic>. (2021</xref>), after evaluating four flowering plant species for the conservation of <italic>Allograpta obliqua</italic> (Diptera: Syrphidae), found that only two were attractive to the key predator of <italic>D. citri</italic> in California. Orchards with floral plants present recorded</p>
					<p>2.5 times more predators and 3.5 times more oviposition than those without. When fed with nectar from <italic>Fagopyrum esculentum</italic>, the survival of the parasitoid <italic>T. radiata</italic> significantly increased, and females laid five times more eggs than those fed with other sugar sources. Thus, the addition of nectar-bearing plants in citrus orchards could enhance <italic>T. radiata</italic> efficiency (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Irvin and Hoddle, 2021</xref>). In northwest Michoacán, Mexico, out of over 27 species of flowering plants evaluated, only 24 registered parasitoids. Annual plants like <italic>Stevia serrata</italic>, shrubs like <italic>Senecio salignus</italic> and <italic>Budleja</italic> sp., trees like <italic>Thouinia villosa</italic>, and climbers like <italic>Serjania racemosa</italic> stood out. Over 14 families of parasitic hymenoptera were recorded on the flowers of these plants (Unpublished data).</p>
					<p>The addition of nectar and pollen alone does not guarantee the prevalence of beneficial insects in agroecosystems. In the absence of prey or hosts for beneficial insects, they, being entomophagous, will be unable to complete their life cycle or will venture away in search of food, particularly parasitoids like <italic>T. radiata</italic>. Thus, the conservation of alternate hosts is essential for the persistence of beneficial insects alongside agroecosystems.</p>
					<p>Conservation of Alternate Hosts. An example similar to <italic>D. citri</italic> was the biological control of <italic>T. erytreae</italic> using the parasitoid <italic>T. dryi</italic> in Trinidad Island. <italic>Trioza eastopi</italic> feeds on the weed <italic>Litsea chinensis</italic> (Lauraceae) and serves as an alternate host for the parasitoid, which managed to increase its population and successfully control the pest (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Duran-Vila and Bové, 2015</xref>).</p>
					<p>The species <italic>Asclepias curassavica</italic> (Apocynaceae) hosts specialist phytophagous (&gt;9), including orders Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, and subclass Acarina. It encompasses species such as <italic>Aphis nerii</italic>, <italic>Danaus plexippus</italic> (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae), <italic>Euchaetes antica</italic> (Lepidoptera: Erebidae), <italic>Liriomyza asclepiadis</italic> (Diptera: Agromyzidae), and the mite <italic>Eotetranychus typhae</italic> (Tetranychidae), among others (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 2</xref>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Cortez-Madrigal <italic>et al.,</italic> 2016</xref>).</p>
					<p>In field conditions at Cienega de Chapala, Michoacán, specialized phytophagous of <italic>A. curassavica</italic> recruited over 20 species of natural enemies in citrus orchards, including egg parasitoids, aphids, and leaf miners, as well as a wide diversity of predators, including families Coccinellidae, Syrphidae, Chamaemyiidae, Chrysopidae, Staphylinidae, Cecidomyiidae, and orders Thysanoptera, Hemiptera, and mites of the family Phytoseiidae, among others (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 2</xref>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Cortez-Madrigal <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>). Among the recorded ladybird beetles, <italic>O. v-nigrum</italic>, <italic>H. convergens</italic>, and <italic>sanguinea</italic> are significant predators of <italic>D. citri</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Michaud, 2004</xref>; Cortez-Mondaca <italic>et al.</italic>, 2010).</p>
					<p>Studies conducted in citrus orchards recorded a significant reduction in pests of Persian lime cultivation, <italic>Citrus x latifolia</italic>, when the plant <italic>A. curassavica</italic> was incorporated, including <italic>D. citri.</italic> One explanation provided was the abundance of natural enemies recruited by <italic>A. curassavica</italic>, primarily from the families Coccinellidae, Syrphidae, Chamaemyiidae, and Chrysopidae (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Godoy-Ceja and Cortez-Madrigal, 2018</xref>).</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f6">
							<label>Figure 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title><italic>Aphis nerii</italic> on <italic>Asclepias curassavica</italic> and some associated natural enemies. A) <italic>Pseudodorus clavatus</italic>, B) <italic>Cycloneda sanguinea</italic>, C) Adult of <italic>Oligota</italic> sp<italic>.</italic>, D) Adult of Chamaemyiidae, E) Mummies and adults of <italic>Lyciphlebus testaceipes</italic>.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-02-RMEXFIT2307-3-gf6.png"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>The monarch butterfly emerged as a significant host for the egg parasitoid <italic>Trichogramma pretiosum</italic> (Trichogrammatidae), exhibiting multiple egg parasitism. In the study region, <italic>T. pretiosum</italic> was present for much of the year (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Cortez-<italic>Madrigal et al</italic>., 2016</xref>), which could explain the low incidence of lepidopteran larvae pests in citrus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Godoy-Ceja and Cortez-Madrigal, 2018</xref>).</p>
					<p><bold>Devices for preserving parasitoids <italic>in situ</italic>
</bold> . The objective is to conserve <italic>in situ</italic> parasitoids of sessile or low-mobility pests. In containers with emergence openings and selective mesh, infested plant material is deposited, allowing only the parasitoid’s emergence (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Kehrli <italic>et al</italic>., 2005</xref>). Another modification involves cages covering entire plants, adapted with emergence openings with selective mesh (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Desurmont <italic>et al.,</italic> 2022</xref>), as mentioned earlier.</p>
					<p>For the conservation of <italic>T. triozae</italic> (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), a parasitoid of the tomato-potato psyllid (<italic>Bactericera cockerelli</italic>; Hemiptera: Triozidae), it was determined that a mesh opening of 500 µm allowed up to 89% parasitoid emergence and retained adult psyllids (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 3</xref>). In field conditions of tomato cultivation, the device promoted &gt;80% parasitism of the psyllid (Unpublished data).</p>
					<p>The same device with minor modifications could enhance the biological control of <italic>D. citri</italic>. For instance, through the design and use of cages similar to those described above, covering <italic>Murraya</italic> spp. plants with populations of <italic>D. citri</italic> and <italic>T. radiata</italic>. The vegetative characteristics of <italic>M. paniculata</italic> make it suitable for mass rearing programs of <italic>T. radiata</italic> for subsequent field release (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Parra <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">García-Ávila <italic>et al.,</italic> 2021</xref>). In addition to <italic>T. radiata</italic>, the use of these devices could also conserve natural enemies of the psyllid. For example, during dry periods and absence of citrus flush in Yucatán, Mexico, <italic>M. paniculata</italic> hedges were where prevalence of <italic>H. citriformis</italic> was recorded (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Cortez-Madrigal <italic>et al.,</italic> 2013</xref>).</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f7">
							<label>Figure 3</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Different types of mesh evaluated in the selective emergence of <italic>Tamarixia triozae</italic>, parasitoid of <italic>Bactericera cockerelli</italic> as a model to be implemented with <italic>D. citri</italic> and its parasitoid. A) 700 x 700 μm, B) 700 x 900 μm, and C) 500 μm mesh.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-02-RMEXFIT2307-3-gf7.png"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>Devices for the preservation and self-dissemination of EPFs. Some authors suggest the use of the self-dissemination technique of entomopathogenic fungi for managing <italic>D. citri</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Avery <italic>et al.,</italic> 2010</xref>). However, few studies have been carried out. For instance, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Patt <italic>et al.</italic> (2015</xref>) evaluated yellow devices baited with <italic>I. fumosorosea</italic> spores under greenhouse conditions. After 24 hours, 55% of adults were infected with the entomopathogen; when the mycosed cadavers were exposed to healthy nymphs, over 90% of them were infected. The blastospores on the trap remained viable for up to 20 days, which decreased when traps were directly exposed to sunlight. In another study using yellow cards impregnated with spores of the same fungus, adult mortality was less than 40%; when citrus volatiles were added to the cards, mortality increased by 23% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Moran <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>).</p>
					<p>For fungi species like <italic>H. citriformis</italic>, with low potential for inundative use, self- dissemination could favor the conservation and early development of epizootics. Epizootics of <italic>H. citriformis</italic> occur in <italic>D. citri</italic> populations in different parts of the world, with variable mortalities ranging from 75% in Florida (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Hall <italic>et al.,</italic> 2012</xref>) to 92% in Rovirosa, Quintana Roo, Mexico (Mora-Aguilera <italic>et al.,</italic> 2017).</p>
					<p>The self-dissemination of natural enemies could be facilitated by the behavior of <italic>D. citri</italic>, including mating with multiple partners (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">Wenninger and Hall, 2008</xref>), males’ preference for mating with positive females, greater flight capacity of positive adults (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">Yamada <italic>et al.,</italic> 2019</xref>), and attraction to colored traps (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Moran <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>), among others. Additionally, the potential development of a sex pheromone by the insect could enhance the self-dissemination technique (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">Wenninger <italic>et al.,</italic> 2008</xref>).</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Analysis and Insights</title>
					<p>Despite the catastrophic forecasts since the appearance of HLB in 2009 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">Salcedo-Baca <italic>et al.,</italic> 2010</xref>), efforts undertaken in Mexico have mitigated the worst impacts of the disease on Mexican citrus cultivation. However, eight years after its appearance, the disease continues to spread, and by 2017, records existed in all 24 citrus-growing states of the country (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">García-Ávila <italic>et al.,</italic> 2021</xref>). This underscores that the national citrus industry will always be at constant risk due to the presence of the <italic>D. citri-C</italic>Las pathosystem. Recent studies indicate that some Mexican citrus growers have opted to switch crops, which will result in a significant reduction in national citrus production (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Granados-Ramírez <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>).</p>
					<p>It is clear that research on the <italic>D. citri-C</italic>Las pathosystem is far from concluded. Strategies are needed to reduce phytosanitary costs, where CBC plays a crucial role. The present review highlights the absence of studies and programs focused on conserving natural enemies for <italic>D. citri</italic>, despite demonstrating their importance for its management (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Qureshi and Stansly, 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Irvin <italic>et al.,</italic> 2021</xref>). For instance, it has been estimated that in orchards without effective CBC programs, annual losses could reach up to 2,000 USD/ha (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Monzó and Stansly, 2020</xref>). For reference, the cost of insecticide application in Florida citrus reached 3,000 USD/ha (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">García-Ávila <italic>et al.,</italic> 2021</xref>). Therefore, the long-term viability of the strategies implemented so far for HLB management should be reconsidered (Monzó and Stansly, 2020).</p>
					<p>The strategies proposed here for CBC programs in citrus are straightforward and would not disrupt measures already implemented for managing the <italic>D. citri- C</italic>Las pathosystem. A future task is to evaluate <italic>Murraya</italic> species in conserving <italic>T. radiata</italic> by designing and using selective cages during periods of absence of <italic>D. citri</italic> nymphs in citrus. Besides protecting the parasitoid from pesticide applications, their populations would be advanced to synchronize them with the onset of nymph populations in citrus. Other studies demonstrate the feasibility of modifying the sequence of pest-NE appearance in agroecosystems to NE-pest, which is known to enhance BC (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Doutt and Nakata, 1973</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Jacas and Urbaneja, 2010</xref>).</p>
					<p>There are numerous plant species that harbor specialized phytophagous insects that could serve as alternate prey for predators in citrus; that is, with low risk of becoming pests; an example is the Apocynaceae family (= Asclepiadaceae). In Mexico, the family is widely distributed with &gt;300 species in the country (Juárez- Jaimes <italic>et al</italic>., 2007), thus presenting high potential for inclusion in <italic>D. citri</italic> CBC programs. In addition to <italic>A. curassavica</italic>, species such as <italic>A. linaria, A. angustifolia</italic>, and <italic>Mandevilla foliosa</italic> have recorded populations of <italic>A. nerii</italic>, <italic>D. plexippus</italic>, and Lygaeidae bugs. Even <italic>C</italic>Las-tolerant plants like <italic>M. koenigii</italic> could function as <italic>D. citri</italic> trap plants and harbor NE; among them, <italic>T. radiata.</italic></p>
					<p>In conjunction with alternate hosts, the contribution of nectar and pollen is crucial for attracting and sustaining a diverse array of predators that prey on <italic>D. citri</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Kondo <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>). However, the inclusion of nectar-producing plants in citrus crops for conserving D<italic>. citri’s</italic> natural enemies remains an understudied aspect (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Irvin <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Irvin and Hoddle, 2021</xref>). Pioneering studies in Mexico, as described here, could serve as a foundational step for managing the pathosystem, especially in young citrus plantations where flowering is limited. Simultaneously, it’s imperative to ensure that companion plants do not serve as hosts for <italic>D. citri</italic> or other significant pests.</p>
					<p><italic>citri</italic>’s attraction to the yellow color presents opportunities for employing traps baited with entomopathogens, capitalizing on the insect’s natural behavior for self-dissemination. The minimal inoculum required and the negligible impact on non-target organisms suggest that self-dissemination could serve as a valuable tool in CBC programs targeting the <italic>D. citri-C</italic>Las complex. One notable advantage of self-dissemination in vectors is its potential to trigger epizootics within populations (particularly in low-density populations), which could hypothetically slow down the spread and incidence of HLB. However, comprehensive field and laboratory epidemiological studies are needed to identify the biotic and abiotic factors conducive to epizootic development. This includes characterizing of EPFs, considering factors such as germination rates across various temperature and humidity conditions. Despite the common belief that high humidity is essential for the development of natural enemy pathogens (&gt;90%; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">Tanada and Kaya, 1993</xref>), recent studies suggest that a humidity level as low as 53% could suffice for their germination and host mortality (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Hastuti <italic>et al</italic>., 1999</xref>).</p>
					<p>These findings open up possibilities for identifying more virulent isolates in adverse environments. For instance, citrus regions characterized by low macroenvironmental humidity but favorable microenvironmental conditions for EPFs (<italic>e.g</italic>., due to irrigation practices) could be potential hotspots for identifying highly effective isolates. Surprisingly, among 28 articles related to EPFs in <italic>D. citri,</italic> none address the isolate’s response to humidity, indicating a significant gap in the existing research.</p>
					<p>The assessment of other natural enemies, such as entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs), remains a crucial area for exploration. Initial observations suggest that <italic>Heterorhabditis indica</italic> can infect and kill adult <italic>D. citri</italic> (unpublished data). However, the application of EPNs via foliage spraying has yielded limited results thus far. Hence, a pertinent question arises: how can EPNs be effectively applied for <italic>D. citri</italic> control? One plausible strategy could involve deploying attractive traps baited with juvenile EPNs. The swift mortality inflicted by these organisms on their hosts makes them an appealing tool for managing disease vectors like <italic>D. citri.</italic></p>
					<p>The vast diversity of the Mexican citrus agroecosystem poses a challenge for region-specific management of the <italic>D. citri-C</italic>Las pathosystem (Mora-Aguilera, 2013). Nevertheless, local management strategies applied to small and scattered citrus plantations, including ornamental Rutaceae, have demonstrated efficacy in disease control (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">Uechi <italic>et al.,</italic> 2019</xref>). These successful practices should be considered for integration into CBC programs in Mexico, aiming to promote crop diversification. For instance, the utilization of windbreak barriers, already recommended for mitigating vector and HLB spread (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">Stelinski, 2019</xref>), could be enhanced by selecting barrier trees with nectar-producing potential. This approach would offer dual benefits: serving as physical barriers and attracting natural enemies and pollinators.</p>
					<p>In summary, the effective and sustainable utilization of natural enemies in CBC programs necessitates robust ecological and epidemiological studies. It’s imperative to recognize natural enemies as integral components of complex ecological networks, contributing to intricate ecological-epidemiological interactions. The cultivation and spontaneous vegetation within agroecosystems play pivotal roles as the foundational trophic level, where various organisms, including entomophagous, entomopathogens, phytophagous, and phytopathogens, intersect. From these interactions emerge complex positive and negative feedback loops at each trophic level, ultimately influencing the health of citrus crops. For example, the predator-parasitoid-entomopathogen (P-P-E) complex associated with <italic>Toxoptera citricida</italic> indirectly promotes the survival of <italic>D. citri</italic> and thus <italic>C</italic>Las, by suppressing competition between the two pests for vegetative shoots. Ultimately, the entire D-P-E complex surrounding <italic>D. citri</italic> and <italic>T. citricida</italic> contributes positively to overall citrus health (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figure 4</xref>) (Mora <italic>et al</italic>., 2017).</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f8">
							<label>Figure 4</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Phytosanitary trophic system in two citrus species (Persian lime and sweet orange) and the lemon grass <italic>M. paniculata</italic>, which are differentially infested with two pest-vector species (<italic>D. citri</italic> and <italic>T. citricida</italic>) and two pathogens (<italic>Citrus tristeza virus</italic> and <italic>Candidatus</italic> Liberibacter asiaticus). Taken from Mora <italic>et al.</italic> (2017).</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-02-RMEXFIT2307-3-gf8.png"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusions</title>
				<p>The primary control strategy for <italic>D. citri</italic> and <italic>C</italic>Las involves insecticides, along with inundative biological control using <italic>T. radiata</italic> and some species of EPFs in a complementary manner. Although natural epizootics of fungi in <italic>D. citri</italic> occur, there is a lack of ecological and epidemiological studies aiding in the rational selection of EPFs isolates. Few studies have been conducted to expand their use endophytically and through self-dissemination.</p>
				<p>Predators of <italic>D. citri</italic> are recognized as one of its main regulators, sometimes even surpassing <italic>T. radiata</italic> in various parts of the world. However, their extensive diversity has been underutilized in managing the pathosystem, mainly due to chemical control interference and the ecological simplicity of cultivation.</p>
				<p>The absence of studies on conservation biological control programs for <italic>D. citri</italic> is evident, despite repeated mentions of its importance. Implementation of such programs could enhance not only the biological control of <italic>D. citri-C</italic>Las but also the self-regulation of citrus pests in general. A greater effort and understanding are required from all involved sectors: institutions, government, researchers, technicians, producers, and society at large. The challenge is substantial, but the vast diversity of regions and citrus production systems in Mexico could facilitate what would be a first step towards the concept of integrated biological control: through conservation, classical, and inundative approaches.</p>
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