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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">rmfi</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Revista mexicana de fitopatología</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Rev. mex. fitopatol</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">0185-3309</issn>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2007-8080</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedad Mexicana de Fitopatología A.C.</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.18781/R.MEX.FIT.2401-1</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Nota Fitopatológica</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Antagonismo <italic>in vitro</italic> de <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. contra hongos asociados a enfermedades en cultivos de importancia económica</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Belingheri Lagunes</surname>
						<given-names>María Emilia</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Medel-Ortiz</surname>
						<given-names>Rosario</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Salinas-Castro</surname>
						<given-names>Alejandro</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Aguilar</surname>
						<given-names>Dora Trejo</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="original"> Doctorado en Micología Aplicada, Universidad Veracruzana, Médicos No. 5, Xalapa, 91010. México</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidad Veracruzana</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Veracruzana</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<city>Xalapa</city>
					<postal-code>91010</postal-code>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="original"> Centro de Investigación en Micología Aplicada, Universidad Veracruzana, Médicos No. 5, Xalapa, 91010. México</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidad Veracruzana</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Veracruzana</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<city>Xalapa</city>
					<postal-code>91010</postal-code>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>3</label>
				<institution content-type="original"> Facultad de Ciencias Agrícolas. Universidad Veracruzana, Zona Universitaria, s/n, Xalapa, 91000. México</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidad Veracruzana</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Veracruzana</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<city>Xalapa</city>
					<postal-code>91000</postal-code>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1"><italic>Autor de correspondencia</italic>: <email>romedel@uv.mx</email>
				</corresp>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>07</day>
				<month>02</month>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<season>Sep-Dec</season>
				<year>2024</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>42</volume>
			<issue>3</issue>
			<elocation-id>RMEXFIT24011</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>15</day>
					<month>01</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>18</day>
					<month>01</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
					<license-p>Este es un artículo publicado en acceso abierto bajo una licencia Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumen</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Objetivos/Antecedentes:</title>
					<p> El objetivo de este trabajo fue evaluar la capacidad antagónica <italic>in vitro</italic> de una cepa de <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp., contra cinco especies de hongos asociados a enfermedades en cultivos de importancia económica.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Materiales y Métodos:</title>
					<p> Se probaron cinco especies de hongos asociados a enfermedades de cultivos: <italic>Alternaria alternata, Colletotrichum kahawae, C. musae, Fusarium oxysporum</italic> y <italic>F. solani.</italic> Se realizaron cultivos duales con cinco repeticiones mas los controles. Se registró el crecimiento cada 24 horas, hasta completar 360 horas. Se determinaron las interacciones, el grado de antagonismo y se calculó el porcentaje de colonización. Los análisis estadísticos se realizaron con un modelo lineal generalizado (GLM).</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Resultados: </title>
					<p>Todas las especies evaluadas mostaron antagonsimo del tipo sobrecrecimiento. El grado de antagonismo se clasificó en tres clases, siendo la clase dos la que se presentó en tres de las especies. El porcentaje de colonización fue del 100 % a las 216 h en tres de las especies y de 264 h para las otras dos. No hubo diferencias significativas en el porcentaje de colonización (p =0.0073), pero sí en el tiempo de invasión (p&lt; 0.0001).</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Conclusión: </title>
					<p>Los ensayos duales para comprobar el efecto antagónico <italic>in vitro</italic> constituyen la base para la selección de candidatos para el control biológico de hongos.</p>
				</sec>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
				<title>Palabras clave:</title>
				<kwd>antagonismo</kwd>
				<kwd>control biológico</kwd>
				<kwd>micoparásitos.</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="6"/>
				<table-count count="4"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="21"/>
				<page-count count="0"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec>
			<title>Introducción</title>
			<p>El género <italic>Clonostachys,</italic> comprende hongos con diversos estilos de vida, incluyendo micoparásitos destructivos, que son utilizados como agentes de biocontrol de hongos patógenos de plantas y también especies con otro tipo de asociaciones ecológicas (Schroer, 2001); pocos estudios relacionados con este género se han publicado en México, aun así recientemente se citó a <italic>Clonostachys rosea</italic> parasitando aguacate en Puebla (Cóyotl-Pérez <italic>et al</italic>., 2022) y a <italic>C. chloroleuca</italic> causando marchitez de garbanzo (<italic>Cicer arietinum</italic>) en Sinaloa y Baja California (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Cota-Barreras <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>). De las especies micoparásitas, la más estudiada y utilizada como agente de control biológico es <italic>Clonostachys rosea</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Funck y Dubey, 2022</xref>), la cual actúa contra numerosos patógenos de plantas como géneros de <italic>Alternaria</italic>, <italic>Botrytis</italic>, <italic>Bipolaris</italic>, <italic>Drechslera</italic>, <italic>Moniliophthora</italic>, <italic>Phytophthora</italic>, <italic>Rhizoctonia</italic>, <italic>Rhynchosporium</italic> y <italic>Sclerotinia</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Sun <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). Como una de las alternativas para el control de enfermedades causadas por fitopatógenos, está el uso de biocontroles, mismos que se sustentan en la capacidad de ciertos grupos de hongos para inhibir el crecimiento de otros, mediante enzimas hidrolíticas como quitinasas y glucanasas, lo cual les confiere una ventaja distintiva al permitirles dirigirse hacia las hifas de otros hongos, logrando degradar de manera efectiva las paredes celulares (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Moore <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). Debido a esto las investigaciones sobre este grupo de hongos son importantes para descubrir nuevas posibilidades de control biológico.</p>
			<p>En <italic>Clonostachys</italic> se han reportado 11 especies micoparásitas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Schroers, 2001</xref>).</p>
			<p>A la fecha no se tiene reporte de <italic>Clonostachys</italic> como micoparásito en Veracruz por lo que el objetivo del presente trabajo fue evaluar <italic>in vitro</italic> el grado de antagonismo de una cepa de <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. aislada frente a cinco cepas de hongos fitopatógenos: <italic>Alternaria alternata</italic>, <italic>Colletotrichum musae</italic>, <italic>C. kahawae</italic>, <italic>Fusarium oxysporum</italic> y <italic>F. solani.</italic></p>
			<p><italic>Clonostachys</italic> fue aislada (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Senanayake <italic>et al</italic>. 2020</xref>) como un micoparásito de un ascomiceto (<italic>Lachnum petridophyllum</italic>) habitante del bosque mesófilo de Veracruz. Para el aislamiento se utilizó medio PDA (MCD LAB), se incubó cinco días a 26 °C. La cepa está depositada en el cepario del Centro de Investigación en Micología Aplicada (CIMA) de la Universidad Veracruzana bajo la clave CIMAF-168. La cepa fue revisada al microscopio compuesto Primo Star Iled (Carl Zeiss, Oberkochen, Alemania) y se midieron los conidióforos primarios y secundarios (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Schroers <italic>et al</italic>., 2001</xref>). Dado que la cepa posee características morfológicas que no corresponden con ninguna de las especies micoparásitas citadas de <italic>Clonostachys</italic>, actualmente se encuentra en proceso de identificación molecular.</p>
			<p>De acuerdo con Comporota (1985), la primera fase para seleccionar una cepa con potencial biocontrol, es evaluar la capacidad para invadir otros hongos. Para corroborar esto se seleccionaron cinco especies de hongos asociados a enfermedades en cultivos previamente estudiados: <italic>Alternaria alternata</italic> (CIMAF-056; Trigos <italic>et al</italic>., 2008); <italic>Colletotrichum kahawae</italic> (CIMAF-078; aislada por A. Salinas de la finca de café Bola de Oro, Coatepec, Veracruz); <italic>Colletotrichum musae</italic> (CIMAF-012; donada por COLPOS); <italic>Fusarium oxysporum</italic> (CIMA-F-068; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Adame <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>); <italic>F. solani</italic> (CIMA-F-127; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Lagunes <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>), todas ellas depositadas en el cepario del CIMA-UV. Las cepas fueron sembradas en medio PDA y se incubaron en una estufa de cultivo (BGE-71) a 26 °C por siete días.</p>
			<p>La actividad antagónica se evaluó mediante cultivos duales, colocando dos discos de 4 mm de diámetro en cajas Petri de 90 mm con medio PDA. De un lado se colocó un disco de PDA con crecimiento micelial de <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. y del otro lado el hongo asociado a cultivos. La distancia de separación entre discos fue de 50 mm y 15 mm separados del margen de la caja. Se hicieron cinco repeticiones para cada ensayo de confrontación.</p>
			<p>Como control, se sembraron cada uno de los hongos evaluados sin la presencia de <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp., y la cepa de <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. sin presencia de otros hongos. Tanto los controles como los cultivos duales, se incubaron a 26 ºC. Cada 24 h se tomaron medidas del crecimiento (milímetros) de ambos hongos en confrontación y del control hasta completar 360 horas (15 días).</p>
			<p>Se observó y describió la interacción entre los hongos <italic>in vitro</italic>, con especial atención a la producción de estructuras reproductoras, pigmentación y morfología del micelio. El grado de antagonismo (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Cuadro 1</xref>) se determinó con la escala de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Bell <italic>et al</italic>. (1980</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t1">
					<label>Cuadro 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Escala cualitativa del grado de antagonismo de <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. y los hongos asociados a enfermedades evaluados.*</title>
					</caption>
					<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Grado</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Capacidad antagónica</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold">1</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">Clonostachys superó al hongo y cubrió toda la superficie del medio.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold">2</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">Clonostachys superó al menos 2/3 de la superficie del medio.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold">3</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">Clonostachys y el hongo colonizaron cada uno aproximadamente la mitad de la superficie del medio.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold">4</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">El hongo colonizó al menos 2/3 de la superficie del medio.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold">5</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">El hongo superó por completo a Clonostachys.</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN1">
							<p>*Modificado de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Bell <italic>et al</italic>. (1980</xref>).</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>Con las medidas de crecimiento, se determinó el porcentaje de colonización siguiendo la fórmula de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Camporota (1985</xref>): C= DT/DE/100, donde DT es la distancia recorrida por <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. sobre el eje que separa los puntos de siembra y DE es la distancia entre ambos (5 cm). Se consideró una colonización efectiva, cuando el porcentaje fue mayor al 50 % (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Rollan <italic>et al</italic>., 1999</xref>). Los análisis estadísticos se realizaron con el software R (R Core Team). Se comprobó la normalidad de los datos con la prueba de Shapiro-Wilks. Posteriormente, se realizó un análisis GLM (modelo lineal generalizado).</p>
			<p>La cepa en estudio presentó un comportamiento antagónico del tipo micoparásito contra las cinco especies de hongos evaluadas, de las cuales <italic>Fusarium solani</italic> corresponde a la clase 1, <italic>Alternaria alternata, Colletotrichum musae</italic> y <italic>C. kahawae</italic> a la clase 2; y <italic>Fusarium oxysporum</italic> a la clase 3, según la escala propuesta en <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Cuadro 1</xref>. En ninguno de los casos se presentó un halo de inhibición, por lo que la interacción observada corresponde al tipo de “sobrecrecimiento”, de acuerdo con la clasificación de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Bertrand <italic>et al.</italic> (2013</xref>).</p>
			<p>El porcentaje de colonización de <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. fue del 100 % a las 216 h frente a <italic>A. alternata</italic>, <italic>C. kahawae</italic> y <italic>F. solani</italic>, mientras que en las especies <italic>C. musae</italic> y <italic>F. oxysporum</italic> fueron a las 264 horas en condiciones <italic>in vitro</italic> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Cuadro 2</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t2">
					<label>Cuadro 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Porcentaje de crecimiento de <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. frente a los hongos.</title>
					</caption>
					<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Tiempo (horas)</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Media A. alternata frente a Clonostachys sp.</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Media del porcentaje de crecimiento de Clonostachys sp.</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">24</td>
								<td style="text-align:center">7.2-6.4</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">12.7</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">72</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">25.6-21.2</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">42.0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">120</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">40.7-35.6</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">69.5</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">168</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">45.3-45.0</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">87.8</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">216</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">46.5-53.8</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">100</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">264</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">49.4-60.8</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">100</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">312</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">51.8-70.6</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">100</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">360</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">53.2-78.0</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">100</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:left; font-weight:bold">Tiempo (horas)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold">Media C. kahawae frente a Clonostachys sp.</td>
								<td style="text-align:left; font-weight:bold">Media del porcentaje de crecimiento de Clonostachys sp.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">24</td>
								<td style="text-align:center">4.8-7.4</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">14.7</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">72</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">19.9-21.6</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">43.2</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">120</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">40.2-36.6</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">73.2</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">168</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">45.8-49.6</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">99.2</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">216</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">50-58.8</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">100</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">264</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">50-65.6</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">100</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">312</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">50-70.8</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">100</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">360</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">50-76.0</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">100</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:left; font-weight:bold">Tiempo (horas)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold">Media C. musae frente a Clonostachys sp.</td>
								<td style="text-align:left; font-weight:bold">Media del porcentaje de crecimiento de Clonostachys sp.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">24</td>
								<td style="text-align:center">6.4-7.1</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">14.2</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">72</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">41.8-20.7</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">41.4</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">120</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">46.8-35.5</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">71.0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">168</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">46.8-42.3</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">84.7</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">216</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">46.8-48.7</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">97.3</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">264</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">46.8-53.1</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">100</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">312</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">46.8-56.7</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">100</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">360</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">46.8-65.8</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">100</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">Tiempo (horas)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold">Media F. solani frente a Clonostachys sp.</td>
								<td style="text-align:left; font-weight:bold">Media del porcentaje de crecimiento de Clonostachys sp.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">24</td>
								<td style="text-align:center">4.5-7.4</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">14.7</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">72</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">15.2-21.0</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">42.0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">120</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">23.2-36.6</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">73.2</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">168</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">30.7-45.0</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">90.0</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">216</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">33.3-52.8</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">100</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">264</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">34.0-59.4</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">100</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">312</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">34.9-69.2</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">100</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">360</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">34.9-75.0</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">100</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:left; font-weight:bold">Tiempo (horas)</td>
								<td style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold">Media F. oxysporum frente a Clonostachys sp.</td>
								<td style="text-align:left; font-weight:bold">Media del porcentaje de crecimiento de Clonostachys sp.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">24</td>
								<td style="text-align:center">9.5-7.9</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">15.9</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">72</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">32.9-21.1</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">42.3</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">120</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">45-32.9</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">65.8</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">168</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">50-40.8</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">81.5</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">216</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">50-46.8</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">93.6</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">264</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">50-54.8</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">100</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">312</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">50-57.8</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">100</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">360</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">50-58.8</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">100</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>Aunque la colonización fue efectiva, no se encontraron diferencias significativas en el porcentaje de colonización entre los fitopatógenos evaluados (<italic>p</italic>= 0.0073). No obstante, el tiempo de invasión si tuvo un efecto significativo en el porcentaje de colonización para cada hongo, como lo indica el valor de <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.0001 obtenido en el análisis GLM.</p>
			<p>Por otra parte, los hongos evaluados exhiben distintas tasas de crecimiento y características particulares, por ejemplo, en el caso de <italic>Alternaria alternata</italic> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>) a las 168 horas, produjo un pigmento color amarillo brillante en el medio de cultivo que se intensificó a naranja. De acuerdo con <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Scott y Stoltz (1980)</xref>, los pigmentos amarillos difusos en el medio se relacionan con la producción de toxinas como la altertoxina II en <italic>A. alternata.</italic></p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f1">
					<label>Figura 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Antagonismo <italic>in vitro</italic> de <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. (Csp.) contra <italic>Alternaria alternata</italic> (Aa). A: 24 horas de la evaluación. B. 120 horas de evaluación. C. 216 horas de evaluación. D. día 15 de evaluación.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-03-RMEXFIT24011-gf1.png"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>A las 144 horas en <italic>C. kahawae</italic> se apreció una pigmentación de color marrón en el centro de la colonia, esta se intensificó a medida que el antagonista crecía sobre hongo (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>)<italic>.</italic> Así mismo, durante la interacción entre <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. frente a <italic>C. musae</italic> se observó el crecimiento del antagonista sobre los acérvulos producidos por <italic>C. musae</italic> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>). Este proceso es de suma importancia, ya que puede contribuir significativamente a la interrupción del ciclo del patógeno, al formarse los acérvulos al final del ciclo de infección, al romper la cutícula de la planta para emerger y continuar con la reproducción asexual (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">da Silva <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f2">
					<label>Figura 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Antagonismo <italic>in vitro</italic> de <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. (Csp.) frente a <italic>Colletotrichum kahawae</italic> (Ck) y <italic>Colletotrichum musae</italic> (Cm). A-D) <italic>Colletotrichum kahawae</italic> (Ck). A: a las 24 horas de la evaluación. B: a las 192 horas de evaluación. C: 360 horas de evaluación. D: reverso de la caja en el día 15 de evaluación. E-H) <italic>Colletotrichum musae</italic> (Cm) contra <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. (Csp.). E: 24 horas de la evaluación. F: 192 horas de evaluación. G: 360 horas de evaluación. H: Conidióforos de <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. creciendo sobre acérvulos de <italic>C. musae.</italic></title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-03-RMEXFIT24011-gf2.png"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>Aunque el género <italic>Clonostachys</italic> ha sido objeto de estudio en relación con su actividad antagónica, existen pocas investigaciones centradas en su interacción con las especies del género <italic>Colletotrichum</italic>. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Peters <italic>et al.</italic> (2020</xref>) aislaron a <italic>Clonostachys rosea</italic> como endófito de la planta de acaí (<italic>Euterpe oleracea</italic>) y demostraron su capacidad para inhibir el crecimiento de <italic>Colletotrichum gloeosporioides,</italic> agente causal de la antracnosis. Este estudio presenta por primera vez la evaluación antagónica contra dos especies del género <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> que no habían sido evaluadas anteriormente.</p>
			<p>En el caso de la interacción entre <italic>F. solani</italic> y <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. a las 168 horas, el micelio aéreo de <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. cambió su morfología, formando una colonia convexa con un margen fimbriado, a diferencia del testigo y los ensayos con otros hongos. Se observaron unas masas de conidios de consistencia acuosa en el margen a las 240 horas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f3">
					<label>Figura 3</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Antagonismo <italic>in vitro</italic> de <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. frente a <italic>Fusarium</italic> spp. A-D) <italic>Fusarium solani</italic> (Fs) contra <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. (Csp.) A: A las 24 horas de evaluación. B: a las 96 horas de evaluación. C: a las 360 horas de evaluación. D: masas de conidióforos de consistencia acuosa en el margen de <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. E-H) <italic>Fusarium oxysporum</italic> (Fo) contra <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. (Csp.) E: a las 24 horas de evaluación. F: a als 144 horas de evaluación. G: a las 192 horas de evaluación. H: a las 360 de evaluación.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-03-RMEXFIT24011-gf3.png"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>Algunas de las características entre <italic>F. oxysporum</italic> y <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. fue que a las 168 horas, ambos alcanzaron a colonizar la mitad de la caja Petri, con los márgenes tocándose. Durante este periodo, los pigmentos de <italic>F. oxysporum</italic> se intensificaron, cambiando de un color lila al inicio del ensayo a un color morado intenso en el centro con márgenes claros al finalizar el experimento, manteniendo la misma coloración que el testigo (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>).</p>
			<p>Algunos trabajos realizados con los mismos géneros probados en este ensayo, mostraron que la actividad antagónica <italic>in vitro</italic> e <italic>in vivo</italic> de 10 cepas de <italic>Clonostachys</italic> y <italic>F. circinatum</italic> en plántulas de <italic>Pinus radiata</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Moraga <italic>et al.,</italic> 2011</xref>) fue variable, donde las cepas inhibieron a <italic>F. circinatum</italic> hasta un 23 % en condiciones <italic>in vitro</italic>, no así en los ensayos <italic>in vivo</italic>, donde el porcentaje de supervivencia de las plántulas infectas por el hongo aumentó. También se ha demostrado que las enzimas endoquitinasas, participan en el proceso de degradación de las paredes celulares de especies como <italic>Fusarium culmorum</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Mamarabadi <italic>et al</italic>., 2008</xref>).</p>
			<p>Las interacciones observadas entre <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. y los hongos en estudio presentaron características distintivas, como la producción de masas de conidios y una morfología de micelio diferente durante el ensayo, particularmente en <italic>F. solani</italic>. Además, se registró una variación en la velocidad de invasión en cada hongo evaluado. Estas diferencias pueden atribuirse a factores como la regulación transcriptómica y la capacidad de <italic>Clonostachys</italic> para discriminar entre las especies que va a micoparasitar, como sucede en el caso de <italic>C. rosea</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Nygren <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>).</p>
			<p>Los ensayos duales para comprobar el efecto antagónico de las especies a nivel <italic>in vitro</italic> constituyen la base para buscar mejores candidatos para el control biológico de hongos causantes de enfermedades en cultivos de importancia económica. Dada la marcada actividad de la cepa de <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. frente a todos los hongos evaluados, esta se perfila como un buen candidato para futuras investigaciones para evaluar su efectividad <italic>in vivo</italic>.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
		<ack>
			<title>Agradecimientos</title>
			<p>El primer autor agradece a CONAHCyT por la beca otorgada (784028) para realizar sus estudios en el Posgrados de Micología Aplicada de la Universidad Veracruzana. Los autores agradecen a la Dra. María de Jesús Yáñez Morales por la donación de la cepa de <italic>Colletotrichum museae.</italic> A la Dra. Elmira San Martin técnica del CIMA-UV por la activación de las cepas. Al Biól. Aarón Pulido por la toma de fotografías.</p>
		</ack>
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					<source>Revista Mexicana de Micología</source>
					<volume>28</volume>
					<fpage>125</fpage>
					<lpage>129</lpage>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
		</ref-list>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="en">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Phytopathological Note</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>In vitro antagonism of Clonostachys sp. against disease associated fungi in economically important crops</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Objectives/Background:</title>
					<p> The objective of this work was to evaluate the <italic>in vitro</italic> antagonistic capacity of a strain of <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. against five species of fungi associated with diseases in economically important crops.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Materials and Methods:</title>
					<p> Five fungal species associated with crop diseases were tested: <italic>Alternaria alternata, Colletotrichum kahawae, C. musae, Fusarium oxysporum</italic> and <italic>F. solani</italic>. Dual cultures were performed with five replicates plus controls. Growth was recorded every 24 hours, until 360 hours were completed. Interactions were determined, the degree of antagonism and the percentage of colonization was calculated. Statistical analyses were performed with a generalized linear model (GLM).</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Results:</title>
					<p> All species evaluated showed antagonism of the overgrowth type. The degree of antagonism was classified into three classes, with class two being present in three of the species. The percentage of colonization was 100% at 216 h for three of the species and 264 h for the other two. There was no significant difference in the percentage of colonization (p =0.0073), but there was a significant difference in the time of invasion (p&lt; 0.0001).</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Conclusion:</title>
					<p> Dual assays to test the antagonistic effect <italic>in vitro</italic> form the basis for the selection of candidates for biological control of fungi.</p>
				</sec>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>antagonism</kwd>
				<kwd>biological control</kwd>
				<kwd>mycoparasites.</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introduction</title>
				<p>The genus <italic>Clonostachys</italic> comprises fungi with diverse lifestyles, including destructive mycoparasites that are used as biocontrol agents against plant pathogen fungi, as well as other species with other types of ecological associations (Schroer, 2001); few studies related to this genus have been published in Mexico, although <italic>Clonostachys rosea</italic> was recently cited to be parasiting avocado in Puebla (CóyotlPérez <italic>et al</italic>., 2022), along with <italic>C. chloroleuca,</italic> causing wilting in chickpea (<italic>Cicer arietinum</italic>) in Sinaloa and Baja California (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Cota-Barreras <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>). Out of the mycoparasitic species, the most widely studied and used as a biological control agent is <italic>Clonostachys rosea</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Funck and Dubey, 2022</xref>), which acts against several plant pathogens such as the genera <italic>Alternaria</italic>, <italic>Botrytis</italic>, <italic>Bipolaris</italic>, <italic>Drechslera</italic>, <italic>Moniliophthora</italic>, <italic>Phytophthora</italic>, <italic>Rhizoctonia</italic>, <italic>Rhynchosporium</italic> and <italic>Sclerotinia</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Sun <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). One of the alternatives for the control of diseases caused by plant pathogens is the use of biocontrols, which are sustained in the ability of certain fungal groups to inhibit the growth of others, using hydrolitic enzymes such as chitnases and glucanases, giving them a distinctive advantage by letting them aim directly at the hyphae of other fungi, degrading cell walls more effectively (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Moore <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). Due to this, investigations on this group of fungi are important to discover new possibilities of biological control.</p>
				<p>In <italic>Clonostachys</italic>, 11 mycoparasitic species have been reported (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Schroers, 2001</xref>).</p>
				<p>To date there are no reports of <italic>Clonostachys</italic> as a mycoparasite in Veracruz, therefore the aim of this work was to evaluate the degree of antagonism <italic>in vitro</italic> of an isolated <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. strain against five strains of phytopathogenic fungi: <italic>Alternaria alternata</italic>, <italic>Colletotrichum musae</italic>, <italic>C. kahawae</italic>, <italic>Fusarium oxysporum</italic> and <italic>F. solani. Clonostachys</italic> was isolated (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Senanayake <italic>et al</italic>. 2020</xref>) as a mycoparasite of an ascomycete (<italic>Lachnum petridophyllum</italic>) living in the mesophilic forest of Veracruz. For the isolation, PDA medium (MCD LAB) was used, incubated for five days at 26 °C. The strain is located in the strain collection of the Centro de Micología Aplicada Research (CIMA) of the Universidad Veracruzana under the code CIMA-F-168. The strain was viewed under the Primo Star Iled compound microscope (Carl Zeiss, Oberkochen, Germany) and primary and secondary conidiophores were measured (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Schroers <italic>et al</italic>., 2001</xref>). Since the strain has morphological characteristics that do not correspond to any of the cited mycoparasitic species of <italic>Clonostachys</italic>, it is currently undergoing molecular identification.</p>
				<p>Accrding to Comporota (1985), the first phase to select a strain with the potential for biocontrol is to evaluate its ability to invade other fungi. To corroborate this, five species of fungi related to diseases in previously studied crops were selected: <italic>Alternaria alternata</italic> (CIMAF-056; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Trigos <italic>et al</italic>., 2008</xref>); <italic>Colletotrichum kahawae</italic> (CIMAF-078; isolated by A. Salinas from the Bola de Oro estate, in Coatepec, Veracruz); <italic>Colletotrichum musae</italic> (CIMAF-012; donated by COLPOS); <italic>Fusarium oxysporum</italic> (CIMA-F-068; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Adame <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>); <italic>F. solani</italic> (CIMA-F-127; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Lagunes <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>), all of which were deposited in the s CIMA-UV strain collection. The strains were planted in a PDA medium and incubated in a cultivation oven (BGE-71) at 26 °C for seven days.</p>
				<p>The antagonistic activity was evaluated using dual cultures, placing two discs, 4 mm in diameter, in 90 mm Petri dishes with PDA medium. A PDA disc with <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. mycelial growth was placed on one side, and on the other, the fungus related to the cultures. The distance of separation between the discs was 50 mm and 15 mm from the edge of the dish. Five repetitions were carried out for each confrontation assay.</p>
				<p>As a control, each one of the evaluated fungi were sown without the presence of <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp., as well as the <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. strain without the presence of other fungi. Both the controls and the dual cultures were incubated at 26 ºC. Measurements of the growth (in millimeters) of both fungi in confrontation and the control were taken every 24 hours until 360 hours were completed (15 days).</p>
				<p>The interaction between the fungi <italic>in vitro</italic> was observed and described, with particular attention to the production of reproductive structures, pigmentation and mycelium morphology. The degree of antagonism (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 1</xref>) was determined using the scale by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Bell <italic>et al</italic>. (1980</xref>).</p>
				<p>Using the growth measurements, the percentage of colonization was determined, following the formula by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Camporota (1985</xref>): C= DT/DE/100, where DT is the distance covered by <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. on the axis that separates the points of planting and DE is the distance between both (5 cm). The colonization was considered effective when the percentage was greater than 50% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Rollan <italic>et al</italic>., 1999</xref>). The statistical analyses were carried out using the R software (R Core Team). The normality of the data was corroborated using the Shapiro-Wilks. Subsequently, a generalized linear model (GLM) analysis was carried out.</p>
				<p>The strain under study displayed a mycoparasitic-like antagonistic behavior against the five fungal species evaluated, with <italic>Fusarium solani</italic> corresponding to</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t3">
						<label>Table 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Qualitative scale of the degree of antagonism of <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. and the evaluated fungi associated to diseases.*</title>
						</caption>
						<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Degrees</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Antagonistic capacity</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold">1</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">Clonostachys exceeded the fungus and covered the entire surface of the medium.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold">2</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">Clonostachys exceeded at least 2/3 of the surface of the medium.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold">3</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">Clonostachys and the fungus have each colonized approximately half of the surface of the medium</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold">4</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">The fungus colonized at least 2/3 of the surface of the medium</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold">5</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">The fungus completely exceeded Clonostachys.</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN2">
								<p>*Modified from <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Bell <italic>et al</italic>. (1980</xref>).</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>class 1; <italic>Alternaria alternata, Colletotrichum musae</italic> and <italic>C. kahawae</italic>, to class 2; <italic>Fusarium oxysporum</italic>, to class 3, following the scale proposed in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 1</xref>. In none of the cases was an inhibition halo observed, so the interaction observed corresponds to the type of “overgrowth,” according to the classification by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Bertrand <italic>et al.</italic> (2013</xref>). The percentage of colonization of <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. was 100% after 216 h against</p>
				<p><italic>A. alternata</italic>, <italic>C. kahawae</italic> and <italic>F. solani</italic>, whereas for the species <italic>C. musae</italic> and <italic>F. oxysporum</italic>, it was after 264 hours under <italic>in vitro</italic> conditions (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 2</xref>). Although the colonization was effective, no significant differences were found in the percentage of colonization among the phytopathogens evaluated (<italic>p</italic>= 0.0073). Nevertheless, the time of invasion did have a significant effect on the percentage of colonization for each fungus, as indicated by the value of <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.0001 obtained in the GLM analysis.</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t4">
						<label>Table 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Percentage of growth of <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. against the fungi.</title>
						</caption>
						<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Time (hours)</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Average A. alternata versus Clonostachys sp.</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Average of the percentage of growth of Clonostachys sp.</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">24</td>
									<td style="text-align:center">7.2-6.4</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">12.7</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">72</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">25.6-21.2</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">42.0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">120</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">40.7-35.6</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">69.5</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">168</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">45.3-45.0</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">87.8</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">216</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">46.5-53.8</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">100</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">264</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">49.4-60.8</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">100</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">312</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">51.8-70.6</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">100</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">360</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">53.2-78.0</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">100</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left; font-weight:bold">Time (hours)</td>
									<td style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold">Average C. kahawae versus Clonostachys sp.</td>
									<td style="text-align:left; font-weight:bold">Average of the percentage of growth of Clonostachys sp.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">24</td>
									<td style="text-align:center">4.8-7.4</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">14.7</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">72</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">19.9-21.6</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">43.2</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">120</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">40.2-36.6</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">73.2</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">168</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">45.8-49.6</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">99.2</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">216</td>
									<td style="text-align:center">50-58.8</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">100</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">264</td>
									<td style="text-align:center">50-65.6</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">100</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">312</td>
									<td style="text-align:center">50-70.8</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">100</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">360</td>
									<td style="text-align:center">50-76.0</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">100</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left; font-weight:bold">Time (hours)</td>
									<td style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold">Average C. musae versus Clonostachys sp.</td>
									<td style="text-align:left; font-weight:bold">Average of the percentage of growth of Clonostachys sp.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">24</td>
									<td style="text-align:center">6.4-7.1</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">14.2</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">72</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">41.8-20.7</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">41.4</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">120</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">46.8-35.5</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">71.0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">168</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">46.8-42.3</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">84.7</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">216</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">46.8-48.7</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">97.3</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">264</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">46.8-53.1</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">100</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">312</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">46.8-56.7</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">100</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">360</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">46.8-65.8</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">100</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left; font-weight:bold">Time (hours)</td>
									<td style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold">Average F. solani versus Clonostachys sp.</td>
									<td style="text-align:left; font-weight:bold">Average of the percentage of growth of Clonostachys sp.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">24</td>
									<td style="text-align:center">4.5-7.4</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">14.7</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">72</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">15.2-21.0</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">42.0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">120</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">23.2-36.6</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">73.2</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">168</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">30.7-45.0</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">90.0</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">216</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">33.3-52.8</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">100</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">264</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">34.0-59.4</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">100</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">312</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">34.9-69.2</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">100</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">360</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">34.9-75.0</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">100</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left; font-weight:bold">Time (hours)</td>
									<td style="text-align:left; font-weight:bold">Average F. oxysporum versus Clonostachys sp.</td>
									<td style="text-align:left; font-weight:bold">Average of the percentage of growth of Clonostachys sp.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">24</td>
									<td style="text-align:center">9.5-7.9</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">15.9</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">72</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">32.9-21.1</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">42.3</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">120</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">45-32.9</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">65.8</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">168</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">50-40.8</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">81.5</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">216</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">50-46.8</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">93.6</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">264</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">50-54.8</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">100</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">312</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">50-57.8</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">100</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right; font-weight:bold">360</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">50-58.8</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">100</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>On the other hand, the evaluated fungi display different growth rates and particular characteristics for instance, in the case of <italic>Alternaria alternata</italic> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 1</xref>), after 168 hours, it produced a bright yellow pigment in the culture medium, which intensified into an orange color. According to <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Scott and Stoltz (1980)</xref>, the diffuse yellow pigments in the medium are related to the production of toxins such as altertoxin II in <italic>A. alternata.</italic></p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f4">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title><italic>In vitro</italic> antagonism of <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. (Csp.) against <italic>Alternaria alternata</italic> (Aa). A: After 24 hours of evaluation. B. 120 hours of evaluation. C. 216 hours of evaluation. D. 360 hours of evaluation.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-03-RMEXFIT24011-gf4.png"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>After144 hours in <italic>C. kahawae</italic>, a brown pigment was observed in the center of the colony, which intensified as the antagonist grew on the fungus (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 2</xref>)<italic>.</italic> Likewise, during the interaction between <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. agains <italic>C. musae</italic>, the growth of the antagonist was observed on the acervuli produced by <italic>C. musae</italic> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 2</xref>). This process is highly important, since it can contribute significantly to the disruption of the cycle of the pathogen, since acervuli form at the end of the infection cycle, breaking the cuticle of the plant to emerge and continue with asexual reproduction (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">da Silva <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f5">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title><italic>In vitro</italic> antagonism of <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. (Csp.) against <italic>Colletotrichum kahawae</italic> (Ck) and <italic>Colletotrichum musae</italic> (Cm). A-D) <italic>Colletotrichum kahawae</italic> (Ck). A: 24 hours after evaluation. B: 192 hours of evaluation. C: 360 hours of evaluation. D: reverse Petri dish at 360 hours of evaluation. E-H) <italic>Colletotrichum musae</italic> (Cm) against <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. (Csp.). E: 24 hours of evaluation. F: 192 hours of evaluation. G: 360 hours of evaluation. H: Conidiophores of <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. growing on acervuli of <italic>C. musae</italic>.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-03-RMEXFIT24011-gf5.png"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Although the <italic>Clonostachys</italic> genus has been the object of study in relation to its antagonistic activity, there are few investigations centered on its interaction with the species of the <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> genus. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Peters <italic>et al.</italic> (2020</xref>) isolated <italic>Clonostachys rosea</italic> as the endophyte of the açai plant (<italic>Euterpe oleracea</italic>) and proved its ability to inhibit the growth of <italic>Colletotrichum gloeosporioides,</italic> the causal agent of anthracnose. This study presents, for the first time, the antagonistc evaluation against two species of the <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> genus that had not been previously evaluated.</p>
				<p>In the case of the interaction between <italic>F. solani</italic> and <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. after 168 hours, the aerial mycelium of <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. changed its morphology, forming a convex colony with a fimbriated edge, unlike the control and trials with other fungi. Masses of conidia with an aqueous consistency were observed on the edge after 240 horas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 3</xref>).</p>
				<p>Some of the characteristics between <italic>F. oxysporum</italic> and <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. was that, after 168 hours, they both colonized half of the Petri dish, with their edges touching. During this period, the <italic>F. oxysporum</italic> pigments intensified, changing from a lilac color at the beginning of the assay to a dark purple color in the middle with bright edges at the end of the experiment, keeping the same color as the control (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 3</xref>).</p>
				<p>Several studies conducted with the same genera tested in this trial showed that the <italic>in vitro</italic> and <italic>in vivo</italic> antagonistic activity of 10 strains of <italic>Clonostachys</italic> and <italic>F. circinatum</italic> in <italic>Pinus radiata</italic> seedlings (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Moraga <italic>et al.,</italic> 2011</xref>) was variable. The strains inhibited <italic>F. circinatum</italic> by up to 23% in <italic>in vitro</italic>, but not <italic>in vivo</italic>, in which the percentage of survival of the seedlings infected by the fungus increased. It has also been proven that the endochitinase enzymes participate in the degragation process of cell walls of species such as <italic>Fusarium culmorum</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Mamarabadi <italic>et al</italic>., 2008</xref>).</p>
				<p>The interactions observed betweem <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. and the fungi under study displayed distinctive charateristics, such as the production of masses of conidia and a different mycelial morphology during the trial, particularly in <italic>F. solani</italic>. In addition,</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f6">
						<label>Figure 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title><italic>In vitro</italic> antagonism of <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. against <italic>Fusarium</italic> spp. A-D) <italic>Fusarium solani</italic> (Fs) against <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. (Csp.) A: after 24 hours of evaluation. B: at 96 hours of evaluation. C: at 360 hours of evaluation. D: masses of aqueous conidiophores at the margin of <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. E-H) <italic>Fusarium oxysporum</italic> (Fo) against <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. (Csp.) E: 24 hours of evaluation. F: 144 hours of evaluation. G: 192 hours of evaluation. H: 360 hours of evaluation.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-03-RMEXFIT24011-gf6.png"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>a variation was recorded in the speed of invasión of each fungus evaluated. These differences can be attributed to factors such as transcriptomic regulation and the ability of <italic>Clonostachys</italic> to discriminate between the species it will mycoparasitize, as seen in the case of <italic>C. rosea</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Nygren <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>).</p>
				<p>Dual trials to verify the antagonistic effect of species at an <italic>in vitro</italic> level constitute the basis to seek better candidates for the biological control of fungi that cause diseases in economically important crops. Given the marked noticeable activity of the <italic>Clonostachys</italic> sp. strain against all the fungi evaluated, it emerges as a promising candidate for future research to evaluate its <italic>in vivo</italic> effectiveness.</p>
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				<title>Acknowledgments</title>
				<p>The first author would like to thank CONAHCyT for the scholarship granted (784028) to study a Graduate course in Applied Mycology in the Universidad Veracruzana. The authors thank Dr. María de Jesús Yáñez Morales for the donation of the strain of <italic>Colletotrichum museae.</italic> Also to. Elmira San Martin, technician of the CIMA-UV for the activation of the strains, and to biologist Aarón Pulido for the photographs taken.</p>
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