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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">rmfi</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Revista mexicana de fitopatología</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Rev. mex. fitopatol</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">0185-3309</issn>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2007-8080</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedad Mexicana de Fitopatología A.C.</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.18781/R.MEX.FIT.2404-3</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artículo de Revisión</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Infecciones virales mixtas en cultivos de hortalizas: aspectos bioquímicos y moleculares</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Sánchez-Sánchez</surname>
						<given-names>Mario</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Vargas-Arispuro</surname>
						<given-names>Irasema</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Tovar-Pedraza</surname>
						<given-names>Juan Manuel</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>González-Pérez</surname>
						<given-names>Cristóbal Joel</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Aispuro-Hernández</surname>
						<given-names>Emmanuel</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Quintana-Obregón</surname>
						<given-names>Eber Addí</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Martínez-Téllez</surname>
						<given-names>Miguel Ángel</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">1</xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1">*</xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<institution content-type="original">1Laboratorio de Fisiología Vegetal, Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, Hermosillo, 83304, Sonora, México; </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<postal-code>83304</postal-code>
					<state>Sonora</state>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="original"> Laboratorio de Ciencia de los Alimentos, Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, Hermosillo, 83304, Sonora, México; </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<city>Hermosillo</city>
					<postal-code>83304</postal-code>
					<state>Sonora</state>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>3</label>
				<institution content-type="original"> Laboratorio de Fitopatología, Coordinación Regional Culiacán, Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, Culiacán, 80110, Sinaloa, México; </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<postal-code>80110</postal-code>
					<state>Sinaloa</state>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4">
				<label>4</label>
				<institution content-type="original"> CONAHCYT-Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A.C. Coordinación de Tecnología de Alimentos de Origen Vegetal. Hermosillo, 83304, Sonora, Mexico; </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">CONAHCYT-Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A.C.</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">CONAHCYT-Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A.C.</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<city>Hermosillo</city>
					<postal-code>83304</postal-code>
					<state>Sonora</state>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1">
					<label><italic>*</italic></label><bold>
 <italic>Autor de correspondencia</italic>:</bold> Miguel Ángel Martínez-Tellez <email>norawa@ciad.mx</email>
				</corresp>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>19</day>
				<month>02</month>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<season>Sep-Dec</season>
				<year>2024</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>42</volume>
			<issue>3</issue>
			<elocation-id>RMEXFIT24043</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>05</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>10</day>
					<month>07</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
					<license-p>Este es un artículo publicado en acceso abierto bajo una licencia Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>RESUMEN</title>
				<p> </p>
				<p>Las infecciones virales mixtas se refieren a la coinfección de dos o más virus en la planta, que regularmente provocan síntomas exacerbados en hojas y frutos. La dinámica de las coinfecciones puede seguir una interacción sinérgica, antagónica o neutral que afecta la gravedad de los síntomas y la infección. Las infecciones virales mixtas ocurren debido a la convergencia de características fundamentales revisadas en este manuscrito. La interrelación virus-planta huésped influye en el establecimiento y los patrones de propagación de infecciones virales mixtas. Se debe prestar atención a los posibles cambios en la dinámica de transmisión y prevalencia de enfermedades virales de las plantas debido al efecto de alteraciones antropogénicas y naturales en sistemas agroecológicos complejos o sus componentes, incluidos huéspedes, reservorios, vectores, nichos ecológicos y la aparición de nuevas cepas de virus.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
				<title>Palabras clave:</title>
				<kwd>antagonismo</kwd>
				<kwd>coinfección</kwd>
				<kwd>sinergismo</kwd>
				<kwd>virus</kwd>
				<kwd>interacciones virus‒huésped.</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="8"/>
				<table-count count="2"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="81"/>
				<page-count count="0"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introducción</title>
			<p>Las infecciones virales mixtas en plantas, también conocidas como coinfecciones, son un fenómeno complejo y común en plantas. Anteriormente se estimaba que las infecciones mixtas eran escasas y se restringían a áreas geográficas complejas. Sin embargo, un análisis reciente del “viroma” en cultivos hortícolas mediante secuenciación de nueva generación ha proporcionado evidencia de la frecuencia de las coinfecciones por múltiples agentes virales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Moreno y López-Moya, 2020</xref>). Esto ha contribuido a comprender las coinfecciones virales, las relaciones virusplanta y los mecanismos para el establecimiento de la infección, el desarrollo de enfermedades, y la propagación de virus. A diferencia de la monoinfección, las coinfecciones tienen algunas características distintivas, tales como la presencia de vectores virales asociados a múltiples hospedantes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Syller, 2014</xref>), la aparición repentina y el aumento de los síntomas, y la progresión de la enfermedad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Jacobson <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>). Las coinfecciones resultarán en interrelaciones virus-virus beneficiosas, neutrales o contraproducentes.</p>
			<p>Los efectos sinérgicos son frecuentes entre virus que pertenecen a diferentes especies (de diferentes géneros o del mismo género) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Miranda-Campaña <italic>et al</italic>., 2024</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Kwon <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">Takeshita <italic>et al</italic>., 2012</xref>), pero también entre virus que comparten un vector, tales como aquellos que se transmiten por insectos como las moscas blancas, pulgones, trips, saltahojas y escarabajos. La especie de virus dentro de los géneros <italic>Crinivirus</italic>, <italic>Potyvirus</italic> y <italic>Begomovirus</italic> son los caos más reportados de interacciones sinérgicas en cultivos hortícolas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">Wintermantel <italic>et al</italic>., 2008</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Lucía-Sanz y Manrubia, 2017</xref>; Escobedo Garcia-Medrano <italic>et al</italic>., 2022; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Tamborindeguy <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>).</p>
			<p>El antagonismo ha sido reportado en especies relacionadas de virus e implica una infección mixta en la que dos elementos virales compiten para establecer una infección en la planta (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Mascia y Gallitelli, 2016</xref>), lo que resulta en un virus con mayor aptitud que el otro. Este rasgo causa que el virus menos favorecido rápidamente reduzca sus títulos. Desde un punto de vista adaptativo, está la activación de las respuestas de defensa del hospedante que previenen una posterior infección por un virus secundario (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Singhal <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). La hipótesis de la competencia por recursos del hospedante es la más aceptada y que explica, en parte, por qué la mayoría de las interacciones virus‒virus resultan en una monoinfección (Singhal <italic>et al</italic>., 2021), como en las infecciones mixtas de begomovirus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Silva <italic>et al</italic>., 2014</xref>).</p>
			<p>La exclusión de superinfección (SIE) es un tipo de antagonismo que es específico a virus de la misma especie, virus leves o cepas de viroides que protegen a la planta de enfermedades resultantes de un encuentro posterior con una cepa severa del mismo virus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">Ziebell y Carr, 2010</xref>). En este fenómeno, el primer virus bloquea la infección de un segundo virus y causa una patogenicidad y severidad por debajo de la inicial, proporcionando así una protección oculta solo contra virus y cepas de virus relacionados (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Cwick <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">Tsuda <italic>et al</italic>., 2007</xref>). Cuando se usa SIE como práctica agrícola se llama protección cruzada, la cual está establecida como una estrategia de manejo ampliamente usada para reducir las pérdidas de cultivos causadas por algunas enfermedades virales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">Xu <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Lecoq y Katis, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">Zhou <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Así, la protección cruzada es específica a las cepas del mismo virus, en comparación con el antagonismo, donde se consideran dos virus diferentes en el proceso de infección (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Pal y Gardener, 2006</xref>).</p>
			<p>Finalmente, la coinfección neutra ocurre cuando la especie viral coinfecta, causa daño a la planta (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">Vinodhini <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>) y sus títulos permanecen intactos. Se sugiere que este tipo de interacción es poco estudiado porque los síntomas causados por un virus enmascaran los síntomas del otro agente (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Singhal <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). Las infecciones antagonistas y neutrales son escasamente reportadas y no se han analizado a profundidad en comparación con el sinergismo. Sin embargo, la diversidad fenotípica siempre emerge, lo cual mejora nuestra comprensión de la patogénesis viral (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Syller y Grupa, 2016</xref>).</p>
			<p>En este trabajo hemos limitado nuestro análisis a hortalizas de interés agroindustrial, tales como <italic>Capsicum</italic> spp., <italic>Solanum lycopersicum,</italic> y otras Cucurbitáceas. Si bien las infecciones virales mixtas empezaron a ser publicadas en la década de 1970, en este trabajo hemos descrito informes actuales de infecciones virales mixtas en cultivos de hortalizas reportadas en los últimos diez años (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Cuadro 1</xref>). Las herramientas genómicas han ayudado a comprender su naturaleza y han conducido a avances significativos en la identificación de este tipo de infección. Este análisis explora los aspectos bioquímicos y moleculares de las infecciones virales mixtas en plantas agronómicas, con el enfoque puesto en tres aspectos fundamentales que posibilitan las infecciones mixtas. Primero, los componentes vegetales involucrados en las infecciones virales mixtas; segundo, el sistema de ARN de interferencia, y por último, los componentes virales reportados en infecciones mixtas.</p>
			<sec>
				<title>Componentes vegetales involucrados en infecciones virales mixtas</title>
				<p>Las infecciones mono y mixtas pueden ser difíciles de detectar, ya que el daño es causado en diversas partes de las plantas, como brotes, hojas, flores y frutos, y pueden confundirse con una falta de nutrientes o con daños causados por herbicidas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Gergerich y Dolja, 2006</xref>). Otro aspecto importante es la afinidad de cada virus involucrado por ciertos componentes de la planta. Además, ciertos componentes de la célula hospedante asisten a los virus para entrar, moverse y translocarse de una célula a otra o de un tejido a otro. Por lo tanto, la determinación de los componentes de las plantas involucrados en las infecciones mixtas virales es un tema de gran importancia.</p>
				<p>Los plasmodesmos (PD) son canales de comunicación citoplásmica entre las células de las plantas que permiten el transporte simplástico de macromoléculas vitales para el crecimiento y desarrollo de las plantas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>). Sin embargo, los virus de las plantas usan este espacio para moverse durante el proceso de infección. La proteína localizada en los plasmodesmos-5 (PDLP5) actúa como inhibidor del tráfico de los PD (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Lee <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>). Para elucidar las características de esta proteína,</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t1">
						<label>Cuadro 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Infecciones virales mixtas reportadas para cultivos de vegetales en los últimos 10 años.</title>
						</caption>
						<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Recurso/ Tipo de infección mixta </th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Género perteneciente </th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Virus/ Síntomas </th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Relevancia </th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">País y referencia </th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Tomate/ Sinergismo </td>
									<td style="font-style:italic">Potexvirus, Potyvirus y Amalgavirus</td>
									<td style="font-style:italic">Potato virus Y (PVY), Pepino mosaic virus (PepMV), y STV / Clorosis, deformación, y manchas de color oscuro en las hojas. PVY y Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) / Enanismo, clorosis foliar, moteado y rizado. PaMMV y TBRFV / Lesiones locales necróticas en las hojas. TYLCV, Tomato leaf curl betasatellite (ToLCB), y Mungbean yellow mosaic Indian virus (MYMIV) / Síntomas de coloración amarillenta, curvatura y retraso del crecimiento. TYLCV y ToCV / Datos no mostrados. Tomato golden mottle virus (TGMV) y Tomato severe leaf curl virus (ToSLCV) / Crecimiento reducido, mosaico y clorosis. Cucurbit leaf crumple virus (CuLCrV), Cucurbit yellow stunting disorder virus (CYSDV), y TYLCV / Arrugamiento severo y curvatura hacia abajo de las hojas. TBRFV y PepMV / Frutos inmaduros abiertos o con cicatrices, junto con hojas estrechas, con parches amarillos, y hojas en forma de cordón. TYLCV, Tomato yellow leaf curl Kanchanaburi virus (TYLCKaV), y Pepper yellow leaf curl Indonesia virus (PepYLCIV) / Amarillamiento leve, rizado y atrofiado de las hojas. ToCV y TYLCV / Disminución de la altura y peso de los tallos. Tomato yellow spot virus (ToYSV), Tomato yellow spot alphasatellite (ToYSA), Euphorbia yellow mosaic virus (EuYMV), y Euphorbia yellow mosaic alphasatellite (EuYMA)/ Mosaico severo, deformación de hojas, rizado y enanismo. </td>
									<td>Hubo un incremento en la severidad de los síntomas en las plantas coinfectadas en comparación con las plantas infectadas únicamente con PepMV. Hubo una alta tasa de transmisión de STV y asociación con los síntomas del tomate. </td>
									<td style="text-align:center">Italia Iacono et al. (2015) </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left; font-style:italic">Capsicum sp./ Sinergismo </td>
									<td style="font-style:italic">Orthotospovirus y Potyvirus</td>
									<td>Alta incidencia de infecciones virales mixtas asociadas con Frankliniella occidentalis y Myzus persicae. </td>
									<td style="text-align:center">Zimbabue Karavina et al. (2016) </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Tomate/ Sinergismo </td>
									<td style="font-style:italic">Tobamovirus</td>
									<td>Aceleración de los síntomas y la infección. Ambos virus interfieren con la respuesta hipersensible. </td>
									<td style="text-align:center">Israel Luria et al. (2018) </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Tomate/ Sinergismo </td>
									<td style="font-style:italic">Begomovirus</td>
									<td>Los Begomovirus no suelen infectar los tomates; pero, MYMIV, podría transmitirse como pasajero del TYLCV en los tomates. </td>
									<td style="text-align:center">Oman Shahid et al. (2019) </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Tomate / Sinergismo </td>
									<td style="font-style:italic">Begomovirus y Crinivirus</td>
									<td>La coinfección por TYLCV y ToCV indujo cambios en la expresión de genes implicados en el transporte y el metabolismo energético. </td>
									<td style="text-align:center">China Ding et al. (2019) </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Tomate / Sinergismo </td>
									<td style="font-style:italic">Begomovirus</td>
									<td>Altas poblaciones de B. tabaci se asociaron con infecciones de diferentes especies de begomovirus, pero en este estudio el número de moscas blancas fue bajo. </td>
									<td style="text-align:center">México Zuñiga-Romano et al. (2019) </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Calabaza y tomate / Sinergismo </td>
									<td style="font-style:italic">Begomovirus y Crinivirus</td>
									<td>Efecto de la adquisición de TYLCV y CuLCrV por parte de la mosca blanca sobre la carga viral y examinación de la preferencia y aptitud de la mosca blanca. </td>
									<td style="text-align:center">Estados Unidos Gautam et al. (2020) </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Tomate/ Sinergismo </td>
									<td style="font-style:italic">Tobamovirus y Potexvirus (ver síntomas en la Figura 3). </td>
									<td>Las infecciones leves por PepMV precedidas por TBRFV pueden inducir síntomas característicos de cepas agresivas de PepMV. </td>
									<td style="text-align:center">Israel Klap et al. (2020) </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Tomate/ Sinergismo </td>
									<td style="font-style:italic">Begomovirus</td>
									<td>Falta de efectividad de los genes de resistencia Ty contra infecciones mono y mixtas de distintos begomovirus locales del sudeste asiático. </td>
									<td style="text-align:center">Japón Koeda et al. (2020) </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Tomate/ Sinergismo </td>
									<td style="font-style:italic">Crinivirus y Begomovirus</td>
									<td>TYLCV presentó tropismo por el follaje superior en contraste con ToCV, que estuvo presente principalmente en las hojas inferiores. </td>
									<td style="text-align:center">China Li et al. (2021) </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Tomate/ Sinergismo </td>
									<td style="font-style:italic">Begomovirus</td>
									<td>Algunos begomovirus pueden aumentar la gravedad de los síntomas y promover o restringir la acumulación de otros virus en el huésped. </td>
									<td style="text-align:center">Brasil Nogueira et al. (2021) </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Tomate/ Sinergismo </td>
									<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Begomovirus (ver síntomas en la Figura 1). </td>
									<td style="font-style:italic">Tomato yellow mottle virus (ToYMoV), Tomato yellow mottle disease (ToYMoD), y Tomato leaf curl Sinaloa virus (ToLCSiV) / Aclaramiento de venas, arrugamiento, mosaico amarillo y hojas atrofiadas. TYLCV y ToCV / Encrispamiento severo y coloración amarillenta extensa en las hojas superiores, necrosis de las hojas recién emergentes. PepYLCIV, TYLCKaV, y ToLCNDV / Mosaico amarillo, bandas venosas, ahuecamientos hacia arriba, curvatura y tamaño reducido de las hojas. Retraso del crecimiento de la planta TBRFV y PepMV / Necrosis y clorosis STV, Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), y PepMV / Fuerte deformación de las hojas, síntomas severos de mosaico, diferencias de altura y peso respecto a los controles. TYLCV y Tomato mottle virus (ToMoV) / Síntomas de curvatura, amarillamiento y mosaico de las hojas. ToSRV y ToRMV/ Mosaico amarillo y distorsión de las hojas. CMV, Capsicum chlorosis virus (CaCV), y Groundnut bud necrosis virus (GBNV) / Manchas y anillos cloróticos concéntricos, necrosis junto con mosaico y malformación de las hojas. TYLCV, Cotton leaf curl Gezira virus (CLCuGeV), Okra yellow crinkle Cameroon alphasatellite (OYCrCMA), y Okra leaf curl Oman betasatellite (OLCuOMB) / Síntomas de curvatura, amarillamiento y mosaico de las hojas. CaCV, Chilli veinal mottle virus (ChiVMV), Large cardamom chirke virus (LCCV), CMV, PMMoV, y Chilli leaf curl virus (ChiLCV) / Moteado de mosaico amarillo, enrollamiento de las hojas, manchas cloróticas y necróticas. ToMV, Tomato golden mosaic virus (ToGMoV), y Pepper huasteco yellow vein virus (PHYVV) / Necrosis foliar, moteado amarillo, bandas venosas verdes, ampollas, curvatura hacia arriba y hacia abajo, malformación de las hojas y clorosis. </td>
									<td style="text-align:center">La interacción sinérgica de los begomovirus conducirá a una mayor gravedad de la enfermedad. </td>
									<td style="text-align:center">Costa Rica Maliano et al. (2022) </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Tomate/ Sinergismo </td>
									<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Begomovirus y Crinivirus</td>
									<td style="text-align:center">Se sugiere que el antagonismo y el sinergismo ocurren en las etapas temprana y tardía, respectivamente. </td>
									<td style="text-align:center">España Ontiveros et al. (2022) </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Pimientos/ Sinergismo </td>
									<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Begomovirus</td>
									<td style="text-align:center">La monoinfección grave causada por PepYLCIV provocó infecciones mixtas con TYLCKaV. PepYLCIV y TYLCKaV infectaron variedades resistentes de plantas de pimiento sin mostrar síntomas de infección. </td>
									<td style="text-align:center">Indonesia Wahyono et al. (2023) </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Tomate/ Sinergismo </td>
									<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Tobamovirus y Potexvirus</td>
									<td style="text-align:center">Presencia de PepMV y TBRFV en tomates importados en supermercados de Florida. </td>
									<td style="text-align:center">Estados Unidos Yilmaz y Batuman (2023) </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Tomate/ Sinergismo y antagonismo </td>
									<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Amalgavirus, Cucumovirus y Potexvirus</td>
									<td style="text-align:center">STV aumentó el título viral e indujo síntomas por CMV en las primeras etapas de la infección, mientras que el título de PepMV no cambió a pesar de que PepMV exacerbó los síntomas. </td>
									<td style="text-align:center">España Elvira-González et al. (2021) </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Tomate/ Antagonismo </td>
									<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Begomovirus vs Tobamovirus</td>
									<td style="text-align:center">TYLCV produjo un efecto antagónico sobre la infección sistémica por ToMoV. </td>
									<td style="text-align:center">Estados Unidos McLaughlin et al. (2022) </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Tomate/ Antagonismo </td>
									<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Begomovirus vs Begomovirus</td>
									<td style="text-align:center">Los genes involucrados en la replicación (CR) son responsables del antagonismo. </td>
									<td style="text-align:center">Brasil Nogueira et al. (2023) </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left; font-style:italic">Capsicum sp. / Neutral </td>
									<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Cucumovirus y Potyvirus</td>
									<td style="text-align:center">La sustitución de aminoácidos de Ser129 por Pro129 de la CP del CMV es necesaria para la infección mixta. </td>
									<td style="text-align:center">India Vinodhini et al. (2021) </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Tomate y melón / Neutral </td>
									<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Begomovirus</td>
									<td style="text-align:center">Primer informe de infección mixta de begomovirus bipartitos y monopartitos asociados con satélites de ADN de tomate y melón. </td>
									<td style="text-align:center">Arabia Saudita AlHudaib et al. (2022) </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Chile /No disponible </td>
									<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Orthotospovirus, Potyvirus, Macluravirus, Cucumovirus, Tobamovirus y Begomovirus</td>
									<td style="text-align:center">Aparición generalizada de infecciones mixtas. Primer informe de la detección de seis virus en chile. </td>
									<td style="text-align:center">India Devi et al. (2022) </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Tomate/ Sinergismo </td>
									<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Tobamovirus y begomovirus</td>
									<td style="text-align:center">La coinfección de ToMV con begomovirus resultó en una mayor gravedad de la enfermedad, una reducción del crecimiento de las plantas y una mayor acumulación viral. ToMV exhibió una alta tasa de mutación. </td>
									<td style="text-align:center">México Gonzalez-Perez et al. (2024) </td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f1">
						<label>Figura 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Transición de síntomas en las hojas inferiores, medias y superiores de plantas de tomate agroinoculadas con los componentes de ADN-A y DNA-B de clones infecciosos de aislados de TYLCV (ToYMoV-[CR:Gre:GR1:90]), y Tomato leaf curl Sinaloa virus (ToLCSiV-[CR:Lib:L1:02]) de Costa Rica y un clon infeccioso del ADN genómico de TYLCV de la República Dominicana (TYLCV-[DO]) de forma individual o en todas las combinaciones. (A) TYLCV; (B) planta de tomate no inoculada; (C) ToYMoV y ToLCSiV; (D) ToYMoV y TYLCV; (E) ToLCSiV y TYLCV; (F) ToYMoV, ToLCSiV y TYLCV. Las plantas fueron fotografiadas 21 días después de la agroinoculación (con el permiso de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Maliano et al., 2022</xref>).</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-03-RMEXFIT24043-gf1.gif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f2">
						<label>Figura 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Componentes vegetales involucrados en las infecciones virales mixtas. El proceso normal de comunicación entre las células vegetales de las plantas implica la interrelación de estructuras tales como los plasmodesmos (A) y el núcleo (B); los primeros se encuentran en las paredes celulares que permiten el pasaje de moléculas en el citoplasma. En presencia de una infección viral (C), la célula contrarresta la acción mediante vías bioquímicas bien definidas, como la inhibición de la función de los plasmodesmos y el tráfico intracelular (D), la producción de metabolitos de respuesta específica (que pueden ocurrir antes o durante el desarrollo de la infección viral), (E) o el aumento en la producción de proteínas involucradas en los procesos de desintoxicación (F). Por otro lado, después de una internalización exitosa por dos virus, ocurre un efecto sinérgico de la infección viral mixta (G).</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-03-RMEXFIT24043-gf2.gif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Kutsher <italic>et al</italic>. (2021</xref>) investigaron plantas de tomate y tabaco infectadas con virus y, a través del ensayo con Proteína Verde Fluorescente (GFP) se determinaron la ubicación, cuantificación y efecto de PDLP5 sobre los PD. En hojas de tabaco, el <italic>Tobacco mosaic virus</italic> (TMV) y el <italic>Tomato brown rugose fruit virus</italic> (TBRFV) aumentaron los niveles de PDLP5-GFP en PD en comparación con el testigo, mientras que se observaron diferencias significativas en las hojas del tomate. En cambio, la infección con el <italic>Tomato yellow leaf curl virus</italic> (TYLCV) redujo la acumulación de PDLP5-GFP en el PD de hojas del tomate en comparación con el testigo, sin efectos significativos sobre el PD de la hoja de tabaco. Si bien las inoculaciones y los efectos virales fueron evaluados por separado y no en una infección viral mixta, la investigación evidenció claras diferencias en los mecanismos moleculares involucrados en los diferentes tipos de infección. La infección por parte de la especie del <italic>Tobamovirus</italic> condujo a un aumento en la expresión de una proteína específica,</p>
				<p>PDLP5, mientras que los virus pertenecientes al género <italic>Begomovirus</italic> inhibieron su expresión, estableciendo que la actividad en los PD depende en gran medida del tipo de virus. Así, sería interesante saber cuál sería el papel de PDLP5 en relación con la infección mixta con diferentes géneros virales.</p>
				<p>Los metabolitos vegetales abarcan un vasto número de compuestos orgánicos de diferentes naturalezas químicas, importancia y funciones. Participan en el desarrollo de procesos celulares, reproducción, protección, maduración y senescencia de plantas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>). Existen escasos informes sobre la síntesis y funcionalidad de metabolitos vegetales cuando ocurren las coninfecciones; se han observado cambios en el tipo y los patrones de acumulación de fitoquímicos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">Zaynab <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Fereres <italic>et al</italic>. (2016</xref>) investigaron las alteraciones en el patrón de producción de compuestos volátiles en tomates infectados por un virus circulativo como <italic>Tomato severe rugose virus</italic> (ToSRV) y un virus no circulativo como <italic>Tomato chlorosis virus</italic> (ToCV). Un análisis de los compuestos individuales mostró que las plantas testigo de tomates emitieron cantidades significativamente mayores de los terpenos α-pineno, 4-careno, α-felandreno, terpineno y β-felandreno que las plantas infectadas con ToSRV, lo que indicó que la infección con ToSRV promueve la supresión de algunos terpenos volátiles. Además, las moscas blancas presentaron una clara preferencia por plantas no infectadas, favoreciendo la dispersión de la enfermedad. Estos resultados sugirieron la habilidad de ciertos virus de coevolucionar con su hospedante, aumentando su propagación por medio de la modificación de los patrones de síntesis de compuestos volátiles en plantas de tomate. Sería interesante discernir si existe una conexión en la síntesis de terpenos como mecanismo de defensa contra insectos vectores, especialmente para <italic>Bemisia tabaci</italic> (<italic>B. tabaci</italic>).</p>
				<p>Sin embargo, la reducción en la concentración de los terpenos no se asoció con una</p>
				<p>mayor atracción del vector hacia plantas infectadas con ToSRV.</p>
				<p>Posteriormente, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">De <italic>et al</italic>. (2018</xref>) describieron que la infección sinérgica de <italic>N. benthamiana</italic> por <italic>Potato virus X</italic> (PVX) y por <italic>Potato virus A</italic> (PVA) que aumentó la expresión del Componente Ayudante de Proteasa (HCPro), una proteína que causa alteraciones en el ciclo de la metionina en la célula huésped. En este experimento, a través del silenciamiento génico de enzimas vegetales clave, como <italic>S</italic>-adenosill-metionina sintetasa (SAMS) y <italic>S</italic>-adenosil-l-homocisteína hidrolasa (SAHH), se encontró una reducción significativa en la glutatión reductasa (GSH), un antioxidante importante en las células vegetales, y por ende, la deficiencia de GSH puede explicar los síntomas observados durante la infección mixta PVX-PVA.</p>
				<p>Un estudio reciente publicado por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Pollari <italic>et al.</italic> (2022</xref>) encontró que cuando <italic>N. benthamiana</italic> es infectado por potivirus y potexvirus, la respuesta metabólica del hospedero difiere de forma significativa, según si es una infección mixta o una monoinfección. En las infecciones mixtas se encontró un aumento en metabolitos relacionados con defensas, y se sugirió un bajo potencial de metilación del material genético. Finalmente, se concluye que el estrés oxidativo asociado a la infección se controla con éxito, pero no en infecciones sinérgicas.</p>
				<p>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Das <italic>et al.</italic> (2019</xref>) reportaron un conjunto de metabolitos secundarios (terpenoides e isoprenoides tales como clorofila, carotenoides, filoquinonas, giberelinas, y ácido abscísico), producidos por <italic>N. benthamiana</italic> después de la infección con TMV durante la infección cruzada. Mediante la técnica de las Etiquetas Isobáricas para la Cuantificación Relativa y Absoluta (iTRAQ) durante una infección mixta fue posible demostrar que un TMV-43A (una mutante en la que se reemplazaron 43 nt de poli(A)) pudo proteger de forma cruzada a las plantas de <italic>N. benthamiana</italic> contra una cepa silvestre de TMV. En plantas protegidas de forma cruzada, se observó un aumento en la biosíntesis de aminoácidos y las actividades fotosintéticas, apoyadas por un aumento en la acumulación de las enzimas 1-desoxi-<italic>D</italic>-xilulosa-5-fosfato reductoisomerasa (DXR) y geranilgeranil difosfato sintasa (GGPS), fundamentales para la biosíntesis de la clorofila. También se encontró un aumento en la abundancia de enzimas relacionadas con el manejo de especies reactivas de oxígeno (ROS) y la homeostasis redox, tales como las tiorredoxinas y la <italic>L</italic>-ascorbato peroxidasa.</p>
				<p>Los PD y la síntesis de metabolitos son modificados por la presencia de virus,</p>
				<p>aunque los componentes vegetales relacionados con las infecciones mixtas son escasos, otros sitios importantes para el crecimiento, como el mecanismo de ubiquitinación podría ser viable para su estudio y establecer el papel de estos componentes en infecciones virales mixtas.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Sistema de ARN de interferencia</title>
				<p>El silenciamiento con base en el ARN es un sistema cuya función principal es la del mantenimiento de la integridad genómica, pero las plantas han adaptado este sistema como un mecanismo de protección, especialmente contra los virus. La defensa por medio del silenciamiento con base en el ARN permite la supresión de la expresión génica mediante interacciones específicas de secuencia que son mediadas por moléculas de ARN de entre 21 y 24 nucleótidos de longitud (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>), (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Moissiard y Voinnet, 2004</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Cisneros y Carbonell, 2020</xref>). Bajo la premisa de que las secuencias del ARN están dirigidas a objetivos virales específicos, sería útil saber si los virus con secuencias similares pueden ser el objetivo de estos microARNs (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Kwon <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>) y cuál es el impacto de las estrategias de silenciamiento de los genes contra las infecciones virales mixtas y su efecto sobre la protección cruzada (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Mohamed <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Leonetti <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">Turco <italic>et al</italic>. (2018</xref>) caracterizaron la defensa antiviral de plantas solanáceas cultivadas y con infecciones mixtas. En este experimento (Turco <italic>et al</italic>., 2018), plantas de tomate resistentes a la cepa chilena del PepMV (CH2) ejercieron, de forma indirecta, un efecto de resistencia a la infección por el genotipo peruano (cepa LP) del mismo virus. La exposición de la cepa LP a plantas de tomate preinfectadas con la cepa PepMV CH2 promovió alteraciones de las secuencias genómicas de consenso en las especies virales, lo cual indica un amplio potencial para la protección cruzada (Turco <italic>et al</italic>., 2018). Asimismo, encontraron una amplia asociación de pequeños ARN de interferencia (ARNsi) con componentes catalíticos del silenciamiento génico, tales como AGO 1, AGO 2, y AGO 3, involucrados con el ARN de interferencia (ARNi) en la escisión de secuencias virales (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>). Los autores señalaron que las cuasiespecies LP (variantes genotípicas) experimentan una rápida evolución dentro de una planta infectada mediante la aparición y fijación de mutaciones puntuales.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f3">
						<label>Figura 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Silenciamiento génico a través del ARN de interferencia pequeño en células vegetales. La internalización del virus ocurre (A), el ARN viral está protegido por una cápside viral (B), el virus usa la maquinaria de transcripción celular para la síntesis de proteínas virales (C). La replicación del ADN vegetal tiene lugar en el núcleo (D) y se sintetiza un ARN de interferencia pequeño, que posteriormente madura y se exporta el citosol donde, después de algunas modificaciones, se produce un ARN de horquilla corta (E). El ARN pequeño puede actuar de varias maneras, tales como interferir con proteínas virales específicas (F), o unirse al ARN viral y a través del Complejo de Silenciamiento Inducido por el ARN (RISC, por sus siglas en inglés), que interfiere con la expresión de genes virales (G).</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-03-RMEXFIT24043-gf3.gif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Además, se encontró que las cuasiespecies CH2 evolucionan rápidamente, lo cual, en el largo plazo, puede crear variantes genéticas agresivas con síntomas severos de enfermedades y la estabilidad genética es considerada importante para la protección cruzada contra cepas virales específicas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">Ziebell y Carr, 2010</xref>). La efectividad de las secuencias génicas que median la resistencia de plantas contra las coinfecciones virales ha sido abordada. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">Wen <italic>et al</italic>. (2013</xref>) destacaron el papel crucial del gen <italic>TOM</italic>1 en el proceso de replicación del <italic>Hibiscus latent Singapore virus</italic> (HLSV) y del TMV. En un estudio realizado en <italic>N. benthamiana</italic>, la planta presentó síntomas leves en lugar de necrosis sistémica severa, y se demostró la protección cruzada contra infecciones mixtas. Aunque el mecanismo detrás de la doble protección viral todavía se desconoce, se establece que los genes <italic>TOM</italic> juegan un papel crucial en la multiplicación del <italic>Tobamovirus</italic>.</p>
				<p>Posteriormente, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Moreno-Pérez <italic>et al</italic>. (2016</xref>) reportaron que el <italic>Pepper mild mottle virus</italic> (PMMoV) con mutaciones en los aminoácidos M138N, T43K + D50G, L13F + G66V, M138N, T43K D50G y A87G en la Proteína de Cubierta (CP) puede superar la resistencia mediada en plantas, produciendo efectos pleiotrópicos e impactando la expansión del rango del hospedante. En este experimento, los fenotipos sensibles y resistentes al gen <italic>L</italic> del pimiento se evaluaron en una prueba de habilidad y se encontró que los efectos que rompen la resistencia de la planta dependen de la mutación específica, el genotipo del huésped susceptible y el tipo de infección (monoinfección o infección mixta). En consecuencia, los efectos pleiotrópicos pueden ser negativos, positivos o ausentes, según la naturaleza del virus.</p>
				<p>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">Wang <italic>et al</italic>. (2021</xref>) reportaron avances en la comprensión de la activación de ARNi durante la infección viral. Los experimentos realizados en <italic>N. benthamiana</italic> demostraron que las heridas activaron el Factor de Transcripción de Unión a Calmodulina-3 (CAMTA3) y la Nucleasa Bifuncional 2 (BN2) por medio de la cascada de señalización asociada al ion Ca++ (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Toyota <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>). Este conjunto de proteínas es responsable de ensamblar y estabilizar el ARN mensajero (mARN) que codifica para componentes clave de la maquinaria de interferencia por ARNi. Los autores mencionan que ARGONAUTE1 y DICER-LIKE1 juegan un rol central en la degradación de microARNs. CAMTA3 o plantas knockout BN2 presentaron una mayor susceptibilidad a las infecciones por <italic>Begomovirus</italic> y <italic>Potyvirus</italic>, y en particular, la proteína V2 presente en los geminivirus interrumpe la interacción calmodulina-CAMTA3 para contrarrestar la defensa por ARNi. Estos hallazgos asocian la señalización de Ca++ con el inicio de la defensa mediada por ARNi y revelan la versatilidad de la defensa antiviral. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Elvira-González <italic>et al</italic>. (2021</xref>) reportaron el perfil de pequeños ARN interferentes (siARNs) obtenidos de <italic>S. lycopersicum</italic> sometidos a infección mixta con virus no relacionados. En el experimento, se inocularon las plantas de tomate con CMV, PepMV, y <italic>Southern tomato virus</italic> (STV), y se encontró que hasta 47 siARNs se expresaron diferencialmente en plantas infectadas con estos virus en comparación con las plantas control inoculadas. Finalmente, los ARNsi con expresión diferencial encontrados en este trabajo estaban involucrados, sobre todo en procesos fundamentales de la planta, como el desarrollo, metabolismo, estrés biótico, abiótico, pero las frecuencias de los ARNsi no fueron uniformes, ni presentaron señales de influencia por el tipo de virus. Este es uno de los primeros reportes que establecen las características de la defensa de la planta mediada por el silenciamiento de ARNi cuando una planta enfrenta una infección mixta.En plantas, la defensa antiviral mediada por el ARNi es mediada por la complementariedad con secuencias foráneas (secuencias virales). Las características sinérgicas debidas a las infecciones mixtas suscitan interrogantes amplias y robustas sobre la especificidad y la cobertura de la acción de las secuencias ARNi contra virus involucrados en las coinfecciones. De hecho, pocos indicadores evidencian diferencias de forma tan clara con el ARNi producido por la planta para tratar con la monoinfección <italic>vs.</italic> infecciones mixtas.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Componentes de las proteínas virales involucradas en las infecciones mixtas</title>
				<p>La continuidad del linaje viral al infectar una planta puede ser considerado el propósito común de los virus en plantas. Bajo esta premisa, un virus tiene una serie de proteínas responsables de llevar a cabo tres situaciones fundamentales. Primero, la adhesión a la célula hospedante, seguida de la internalización mediada de varias formas (enmascaramiento, mimetismo de proteínas, etc.) y finalmente, la réplica del genoma. La probabilidad de éxito de todas las etapas dependerá de factores que no son típicos de virus (el sistema de defensa mediado por proteínas y material genético vegetal) y en sus propias características. Luego, analizamos las proteínas y discernimos los complejos procesos que superan para lograr su objetivo. Enfatizamos que las estructuras descritas en esta sección se basan en características observadas en la monoinfección, ya que los estudios que evalúan las características de estas proteínas en infecciones mixtas son escasos.</p>
				<p>La CP juega un papel fundamental en el ensamblaje de partículas virales y se ha establecido como meta para el desarrollo de moléculas contra virus en plantas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">Wu <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Basu <italic>et al</italic>. (2021</xref>) reportaron que en los begomovirus <italic>Tomato leaf curl New Delhi virus</italic> (ToLCNDV) y <italic>Tomato leaf curl Gujarat virus</italic> (ToLCGuV), las proteínas AV-2 (pre-CP) y AC-2 (proteína activadora transcripcional) han funcionado como moduladoras del proceso de coinfección viral del proceso de coinfección viral en el tomate y <italic>N. benthamiana</italic>. Ambos virus presentaron sinergia en una prueba <italic>in vitro</italic> en plantas de tomate y <italic>N. benthamiana,</italic> promovieron la aparición de síntomas extremos de infección. Los autores sugieren que AC2 y AV2 de ToLCGuV aumentan la acumulación asimétrica de ToLCNDV y que la presencia de este tipo de proteína viral favorece la supresión del silenciamiento de genes en plantas de</p>
				<p><italic>N. benthamiana</italic> y de tomate. Por medio de una prueba reversión de silenciamiento génico acoplado a GFP, (brevemente, las plantas transgénicas que expresaron AC2 y AV2 fueron validadas mediante la prueba GFP; posteriormente, las plantas fueron infiltradas con <italic>A. tumefaciens</italic> con los constructos deseados) se obtuvo la actividad supresora de las proteínas virales codificadas con los aislamientos de ARNsi a los 6 días post-infección. Los autores sugirieron que la actividad supresora de AV2 se debe al bloqueo de la propagación de las señales de silenciamiento del ARN en las hojas y concluyeron que las proteínas codificadas por ToLCGuV promueven la replicación eficiente de ToLCNDV por medio de la vía de silenciamiento antiviral. En algunos géneros de virus vegetales, CP es esencial para el proceso de infección, ya que recluta e interactúa con varias estructuras celulares (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Bennett Agbandje-McKenna, 2020</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Mochizuki <italic>et al</italic>. (2014</xref>) demostraron que la mutación de CP en P129 redujo la expresión de los genes relacionados con la función de los cloroplastos y la fotosíntesis en plantas de tabaco infectadas con CMV. Otras proteínas del proceso de replicado, tales como el complemento 2b de la virulencia, también se asociaron con fenotipos asintomáticos y títulos virales bajos. Los autores concluyeron que el efecto de la mutación aumentó la capacidad de patogenicidad, debido a que el CMV adquirió virulencia a través de mutaciones en los aminoácidos de la CP, lo que condujo a anomalías estructurales en los cloroplastos. Posteriormente, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">Zhang <italic>et al</italic>. (2017</xref>) reportaron que la mutación E96 de CP del <italic>Cucumber green mottle mosaic virus</italic> (CGMMV) es importante para el proceso de patogénesis del desarrollo. Pruebas <italic>in vitro</italic> con mutantes de <italic>N. benthamiana</italic> E96 CGMMV produjeron una infección exitosa y este estudio indicó que las modificaciones en el sitio de ensamblaje en las células pueden ser afectadas por mutaciones en el aminoácido crucial E96. Por este motivo, otros mutantes realizados en este estudio, tales como E96A y E96K, y tres mutantes dobles, V94A-E96K, V97-E96K, y T104A-E96K, presentaron solo rasgos sistémicos tardíos de infección en <italic>N. benthamiana</italic>, destacando el papel del residuo de E96 en el proceso de infección.</p>
				<p>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">Shi <italic>et al</italic>. (2023</xref>) reportaron que en el género de <italic>Tobamovirus</italic>, CP y MP presentan la capacidad de interactuar para facilitar el movimiento viral a través de PD. Se determinó <italic>in vitro</italic> que la región de la proteína MP entre los residuos 78 y 128 era importante para el movimiento viral. Específicamente, el residuo de treonina en la posición 107 en MP (T107MP) es crucial para la interacción CP-MP interacción y la sustitución de T107A retrasa la infección sistémica de CGMMV en <italic>N. benthamiana</italic>. Mutaciones en otros residuos evaluados, tales como F17AMP y D97AMP inhibieron la infección de CGMMV, lo que sugiere que estos últimos no juegan ningún papel en la interacción, pero regulan la función de MP, independiente de CP. Además, se encontró que la coexpresión de MP y CP de CGMMV en <italic>N. benthamiana</italic> aumenta la acumulación de CP y que la interacción de ambas proteínas inhibe la respuesta de defensa mediada por el ácido salicílico en las primeras etapas de infección. Finalmente, los autores concluyeron que la supresión de la defensa antiviral del hospedante, activado por la interacción CP-MP facilita le infección sistémica.</p>
				<p>Comprender el papel de CP en el proceso de infección ha permitido realizar</p>
				<p>avances notables que podrían aplicarse en el futuro para el control de infecciones virales en plantas. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Liu <italic>et al</italic>. (2020</xref>) reportaron que las cepas mutantes de CGMMV</p>
				<p>presentaron características útiles para el control de virus específicos mediante la protección cruzada. A través de la mutagénesis dirigida, se obtuvo mutantes de CPCGMMV que después fueron inoculados en <italic>N. benthamiana</italic> hasta que se observaron síntomas. Específicamente, la mutación de CP en el residuo D89 (D89A) redujo los síntomas de la infección por CGMMV en hojas y venas<italic>.</italic> Los clones mutantes de obtenidos mostraron una característica importante para la regulación de la virulencia de CGMMV y se pueden desarrollar como un modelo exitoso para la contención de cepas virulentas de este tipo específico de virus. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Sharma <italic>et al</italic>. (2020</xref>) también sugirieron la gran utilidad de CPTMV como un modelo para generar mutantes que confieran resistencia viral a futuras infecciones y desarrollen protección cruzada. Específicamente, los mutantes CPTMV T42W y E50Q exhibieron la presencia de varillas no helicoidales y altamente estables que interfieren con la acumulación de MP y promueven el desensamblaje molecular de TMV en la célula hospedante. Dado que la protección cruzada se considera dentro de las infecciones virales mixtas, los resultados indican que este tipo de metodología podría brindar una protección adecuada contra la infección por TMV.</p>
				<p>Ya hemos descrito anteriormente las características de las proteínas reportadas</p>
				<p>durante el proceso de infección viral. Aunque las funciones han sido establecidas, se requiere más investigación para comprender lo que sucede cuando interactúan proteínas ortólogas de diferentes especies de virus en una infección mixta y por qué no estimar el grado en el que una interacción proteínaproteína favorece el sinergismo viral o la protección cruzada, o incluso si tal interacción pudiera desencadenar el desarrollo de un antagonismo viral.</p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Perspectivas y conclusión</title>
			<p>Las estrategias de control viral dependen, en buena parte, de la comprensión de los fenómenos naturales, incluyendo la patogénesis viral y sus aspectos, tales como las monoinfecciones y coinfecciones. La investigación preliminar en este campo podría ser, en el futuro, la base para la implementación de programas para el control de infecciones virales mixtas en hortalizas de interés agronómico. Una de las teorías más aceptadas acerca de infecciones mixtas de los virus relacionados es que, debido a que tienen mecanismos de entrada a las células huésped y comparten el arsenal de proteínas involucradas en el proceso de infección, las probabilidades de desarrollar una coinfección aumentan (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Ng y Falk, 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Tamborindeguy <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). Si bien este proceso es posible y comprobable en virus multipartitos de las familias de <italic>Closteroviridae, Geminiviridae, Nanoviridae, Potyviridae</italic> y <italic>Rhabdoviridae</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Lucía-Sanz y Manrubia, 2017</xref>), no funciona de la misma manera para otros virus. La <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 4</xref> presenta una infección mixta de <italic>tobamovirus</italic> con <italic>potexvirus,</italic> con un efecto sinérgico sobre el fenotipo. Sin embargo, para el género del <italic>tobamoviru</italic>s, donde algunas especies presentan semejanza genética (por ejemplo, <italic>Tomato mottle mosaic virus</italic> (ToMMV) y <italic>Tomato mosaic virus</italic> (ToMV)), no hay reportes de infecciones mixtas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">Tettey <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f4">
					<label>Figura 4</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Desarrollo de síntomas en hojas de tomate (cv. Macizo) infectadas con TBRFV y PepMV en infecciones mono y mixta (sinergia) a 21 días post-inoculación, (fotografía donada por el grupo Dr. Tovar-Pedraza, CIAD Culiacán, México).</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-03-RMEXFIT24043-gf4.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Syller y Grupa (2016</xref>) destacan que, por lo general, las infecciones virales relacionadas producen antagonismos. En este contexto, estudios realizados sobre el <italic>Turnip crinkle virus</italic> (TCV) establecen que virus de ARN de sentido positivo (+), por medio de una función viral que todavía se desconoce, “niega” a los virus producidos la posibilidad de replicar sus genomas en células de sus “progenitores”, lo cual conduce a la generación de virus altamente homólogos superinfecciosos que son indistinguibles de la progenie (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">Tatineni and French, 2016</xref>). En la actualidad, SIE explica la forma en que los virus son seleccionados de forma evolutiva al mantener una frecuencia óptima de error en los genomas de la progenie. Aunque se basa principalmente en observaciones realizadas en TCV, este nuevo modelo podría aplicarse a otros viruses para entender cómo SIE influye en la función codificada por virus y evolutivamente conservada que minimiza la proliferación de errores en la replicación. Así, SIE se establece como un mecanismo molecular que promueve el antagonismo y debe ser fortalecido en plantas solanáceas y cucurbitáceas modelo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">Yin <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">Zhou <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>).</p>
			<p>Las tecnologías de Secuenciación de Alto Rendimiento (HTS) hacen posible el discernimiento de los orígenes de infecciones mixtas de forma más precisa y rápida. Específicamente, las tecnologías como Oxford Nanopore Technologies (ONT), basadas en lecturas largas, presentan la suficiente sensibilidad como para detectar agentes virales relacionados, según reportes de autores anteriores (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Abou Kubaa <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Lee <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">van Rengs <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>). Además, el ARNi se convierte en una alternativa versátil y ecológica para la protección de cultivos de interés económico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Bharathi <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). El Silenciamiento Génico Inducido por el Hospedador (HIGS, por sus siglas en inglés) y el Silenciamiento Génico Inducido por Pulverización (SIGS, por sus siglas en inglés) son tendencias en las tecnologías de aplicación de ARNi. Estas metodologías hacen uso de la encapsulación para mejorar la efectividad del silenciamiento génico por parte del ARNi; además, confiere protección y estabilidad al ARN, evitando que experimente modificaciones enzimáticas o de pH (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Mitter <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>). Sin embargo, el mayor desafío de estos procedimientos yace en lograr la estabilidad y evitar la degradación prematura de ARNi en el ambiente. La mayor parte de la investigación actual sobre ARNi encapsulado se centra principalmente en la administración oral para controlar insectos mediante el silenciamiento de genes esenciales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Hernández-Soto y Chacón-Cerdas, 2021</xref>). Existe una investigación incipiente sobre la aplicación de ARNi para el mejoramiento de las características de cultivos de interés, según lo reporta <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">Termolino, (2021</xref>) pero no hay reportes de que esta tecnología se esté usando para contrarrestar infecciones virales mixtas. Sin embargo, la primera evidencia de su uso y su efectividad contra virus que infectan cultivos de interés comercial ya ha sido establecida en informes previos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">Worrall <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>).</p>
			<p>Gracias a la aplicación de nuevas tecnologías de secuenciación, se ha elucidado</p>
			<p>la relación virus-huésped. La sinergia viral es la confección más estudiada y su objetivo es aumentar los recursos duales para lograr la infección. En comparación, el antagonismo o la coinfección neutral es una forma de que los virus proliferen mientras compiten con otros organismos, reduciendo la probabilidad de que estos últimos se establezcan. Se están estableciendo nuevos nichos ecológicos, hospedantes, vectores y modos de transmisión de virus que infectan a las plantas en la naturaleza.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
		<ack>
			<title>Agradecimientos</title>
			<p> </p>
			<p>Al Sistema Nacional de Investigadores (SNI) y al Consejo Nacional de Humanidades, Ciencias y Tecnologías (CONAHCYT) por su apoyo financiero (beca posdoctoral 2023-2024, CVU 492022 y beca posdoctoral 2023-2025, CVU 626768).</p>
		</ack>
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					<subject>Review Article</subject>
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				<article-title>Mixed viral infections in vegetable crops: biochemical and molecular aspects</article-title>
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			<abstract>
				<title>ABSTRACT</title>
				<p>Mixed viral infections refer to the coinfection of two or more viruses in the plant, which regularly lead to exacerbated symptoms on leaves and fruits. The dynamics of coinfections may follow either a synergistic, antagonistic, or neutral interaction that impacts the severity of the symptoms and infection. Mixed viral infections occur due to the convergence of fundamental characteristics reviewed in this manuscript. The virus‒host plant interrelationship influences the establishment and spread patterns of mixed viral infections. Attention should be drawn to potential changes in the dynamics of transmission and prevalence of plant viral diseases due to the effect of anthropogenic and natural alterations to complex agroecological systems or their components, including hosts, reservoirs, vectors, ecological niches, and the emergence of new virus strains.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>antagonism</kwd>
				<kwd>coinfection</kwd>
				<kwd>synergism</kwd>
				<kwd>virus</kwd>
				<kwd>virus-host interactions</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introduction</title>
				<p>Mixed viral infections in plants, also known as coinfections, are a complex and common phenomenon in plants. Previously, it was estimated that mixed infections were scarce and restricted to complex geographic areas; however, a recent analysis of the “virome” in horticultural crops by next-generation sequencing has provided evidence of the frequency of coinfections by multiple viral agents (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Moreno and López-Moya, 2020</xref>). This has contributed to understand the viral coinfections, the virus‒plant relationships, and the mechanisms for infection establishment, disease development, and virus spread. Unlike monoinfection and coinfections have some distinctive features, such as the presence of multi-host-associated virus vectors (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Syller, 2014</xref>), sudden and enhanced symptom onset, and disease progression (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Jacobson <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>). Coinfections will result in either beneficial, neutral, or counterproductive virus‒virus interrelations.</p>
				<p>Synergistic effects are frequently among viruses that belong to different species (from different genera or the same genus), (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Miranda-Campaña <italic>et al</italic>., 2024</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Kwon <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">Takeshita <italic>et al</italic>., 2012</xref>) but also, among viruses that share a vector, such as those that are transmitted by insects such as whiteflies, aphids, thrips, planthoppers, leafhoppers, and beetles. The virus species within the genera <italic>Crinivirus</italic>, <italic>Potyvirus</italic>, and <italic>Begomovirus</italic> are the most reported cases of synergic interactions in vegetable crops (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">Wintermantel <italic>et al</italic>., 2008</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Lucía-Sanz and Manrubia, 2017</xref>; Escobedo Garcia-Medrano <italic>et al</italic>., 2022; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Tamborindeguy <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>).</p>
				<p>Antagonism had been reported to occur in related virus species and implies a mixed infection where two viral elements compete to establish the infection in the plant (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Mascia and Gallitelli, 2016</xref>), resulting in a virus with better fitness that the other. This trait causes the least favored virus to quickly decrease its titers. From an adaptative point of view, there is activation of host defense responses that preventing the subsequent infection by a secondary virus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Singhal <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). Competition for host resources is the most widely accepted hypothesis that partly explains why most cases of the virus‒virus interaction results in monoinfection (Singhal <italic>et al</italic>., 2021), such as in begomovirus mixed infections (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Silva <italic>et al</italic>., 2014</xref>).</p>
				<p>Superinfection exclusion (SIE) is a type of antagonism that is specific to viruses of the same species, mild viruses, or viroid strains that protects the plant from disease resulting from a subsequent encounter with a severe strain of the same virus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">Ziebell and Carr, 2010</xref>). In this phenomenon the first virus blocks infection of a second virus and causes pathogenicity and severity below the initial one, thus providing hidden protection only against related viruses or virus strains (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Cwick <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">Tsuda <italic>et al</italic>., 2007</xref>). When SIE is used as an agricultural practice it is called cross-protection which is established as a widely used management strategy to reduce crop losses caused by some viral diseases (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">Xu <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Lecoq and Katis, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">Zhou <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Thus, cross-protection is specific to strains of the same virus, compared to antagonism, where two different viruses are considered in the infection process (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Pal and Gardener, 2006</xref>).</p>
				<p>Finally, neutral coinfection occurs when the viral species coinfects, cause damage to the plant (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">Vinodhini <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>), and their titers remain intact. It is suggested that this type of interaction is under studied because the symptoms caused by a virus mask the symptoms of the other agent (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Singhal <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). Antagonistic and neutral infections are scarcely reported and have not been analyzed in depth in comparison with synergism. However, phenotypic diversity emerges every time, which improves our understanding of viral pathogenesis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Syller and Grupa, 2016</xref>). In this work, we have limited our analysis to vegetables of agro-industrial interest such as <italic>Capsicum</italic> spp., <italic>Solanum lycopersicum,</italic> and some other Cucurbitaceae. Although mixed viral infections began to be described in the 1970s, in this work we described current reports of mixed viral infections in vegetable crops reported in the last ten years (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 1</xref>). genomic tools have helped to understand their nature and led to significant advances in the identification of this type of infection. This review explores the biochemical and molecular aspects of mixed viral infections in agronomic plants, focusing on three fundamental aspects that make mixed infections possible, first: plant components involved in mixed viral infections; second: RNA interference system, and finally: viral components reported in mixed infections.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Plant components involved in viral mixed infections</title>
					<p>Mono and mixed infections can be difficult to detect, since damage caused in various parts of the plant such as buds, leaves, flowers, and fruits, can be confused with a lack of nutrients or damage caused by herbicides (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Gergerich and Dolja, 2006</xref>). Another important aspect is the affinity of each virus involved to certain components of the plant. Besides, certain components of the host cell assist viruses in entry, move, and translocate from cell to cell or from one tissue to another. Therefore, determining plant components that are involved in mixed viral infections is a topic of great importance.</p>
					<p>Plasmodesmata (PD) are cytoplasmic communication channels between plant cells that allow the symplastic transport of macromolecules vital for plant growth and development (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 2</xref>). However, plant viruses use this space for movement during the infection process. Plasmodesmata-located protein 5 (PDLP5) acts as an inhibitor of PD trafficking (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Lee <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>). To elucidate the characteristics of this protein <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Kutsher <italic>et al</italic>. (2021</xref>) investigated tomato and tobacco plants infected with viruses and through Green Fluorescent Protein assay (GFP) the location, quantification, and effect of PDLP5 on PD were determined. In tobacco leaves, <italic>Tobacco mosaic virus</italic> (TMV) and <italic>Tomato brown rugose fruit virus</italic> (TBRFV) increased PDLP5-GFP levels in PD compared to the control, whereas no significant differences were observed in tomato leaves. Conversely, infection with <italic>Tomato yellow leaf curl virus</italic> (TYLCV) decreased PDLP5-GFP accumulation in tomato leaf PD compared to the control, without any significant effect on tobacco leaf PD. Although, viral inoculations and effects were evaluated separately and not in mixed viral infection, the research demonstrated clear differences in the molecular mechanisms involved in the different types of infection. The infection by <italic>Tobamovirus</italic> species led to an increase in the expression of a specific protein</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t2">
							<label>Table 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Mixed viral infections reported for vegetable crops in the last 10 years.</title>
							</caption>
							<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Source/ Mixed infection type </th>
										<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Genera included </th>
										<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Viruses/ Symptoms </th>
										<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Highlight </th>
										<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Country and reference </th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td style="text-align:left">Tomato/ Synergism </td>
										<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Potexvirus, potyvirus and Amalgavirus</td>
										<td style="font-style:italic">Potato virus Y (PVY), Pepino mosaic virus (PepMV), and STV / chlorosis, deformation, and depressed spots of dark color in leaves. PVY and Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) / Stunting, leaf chlorosis, mottling, and curling PaMMV and TBRFV / Necrotic local lesions were observed on the leaves. TYLCV, Tomato leaf curl betasatellite (ToLCB), and Mungbean yellow mosaic Indian virus (MYMIV) / yellowing, curling, and stunting symptoms. TYLCV and ToCV / Data not shown. Tomato golden mottle virus (TGMV) and Tomato severe leaf curl virus (ToSLCV) / reduced growth, mosaic, and chlorosis. Cucurbit leaf crumple virus (CuLCrV), Cucurbit yellow stunting disorder virus (CYSDV), and TYLCV / Severe crumpling and downward curling of leaves. TBRFV and PepMV / Scarred or open unripe fruits, along with narrow or yellow patched leaves, shoestring-like leaves. TYLCV, Tomato yellow leaf curl Kanchanaburi virus (TYLCKaV), and Pepper yellow leaf curl Indonesia virus (PepYLCIV) / Mild yellowing, curling, and stunting. ToCV and TYLCV / Decreased height and weight of stems. Tomato yellow spot virus (ToYSV), Tomato yellow spot alphasatellite (ToYSA), Euphorbia yellow mosaic virus (EuYMV), and Euphorbia yellow mosaic alphasatellite (EuYMA)/Severe mosaic, leaf deformation, curling, and dwarfism. </td>
										<td>There was an increased severity of symptoms in co-infected plants by comparison to plants only infected with PepMV. There was a high rate of STV transmission and association with tomato symptoms. </td>
										<td style="text-align:center">Italy Iacono et al. (2015) </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="text-align:left; font-style:italic">Capsicum sp./ Synergism </td>
										<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Orthotospovirusand Potyvirus</td>
										<td>High incidence of mixed viral infections associated with Frankliniella occidentalis and Myzus persicae. </td>
										<td style="text-align:center">Zimbabwe Karavina et al. (2016) </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="text-align:left">Tomato/ Synergism </td>
										<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Tobamovirus</td>
										<td>Acceleration of symptoms and infection. Both viruses interfere with the hypersensitive response. </td>
										<td style="text-align:center">Israel Luria et al. (2018) </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="text-align:left">Tomato/ Synergism </td>
										<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Begomovirus</td>
										<td>Begomoviruses which do not commonly infect tomatoes, such as MYMIV, could be spread as a passenger of TYLCV in tomatoes. </td>
										<td style="text-align:center">Oman Shahid et al. (2019) </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="text-align:left">Tomato / Synergism </td>
										<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Begomovirus and Crinivirus</td>
										<td>TYLCV and ToCV coinfection induced shifts in the expression of genes involved in transport and energy metabolism. </td>
										<td style="text-align:center">China Ding et al. (2019) </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="text-align:left">Tomato / Synergism </td>
										<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Begomovirus</td>
										<td>High populations of B. tabaci are associated with infections of different species of begomovirus, but in this study the number of whiteflies was low. </td>
										<td style="text-align:center">Mexico Zuñiga-Romano et al. (2019) </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="text-align:left">Squash and tomato / Synergism </td>
										<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Begomovirus and Crinivirus</td>
										<td>Effect of whitefly acquisition of TYLCV and CuLCrV on virus load, and examination of the whitefly preference and fitness. </td>
										<td style="text-align:center">USA Gautam et al. (2020) </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="text-align:left">Tomato/ Synergism </td>
										<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Tobamovirus and Potexvirus (see symptoms in Figure 3). </td>
										<td>Mild PepMV infections preceded by TBRFV can induce characteristic symptoms of aggressive PepMV strains. </td>
										<td style="text-align:center">Israel Klap et al. (2020) </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="text-align:left">Tomato/ Synergism </td>
										<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Begomovirus</td>
										<td>Lack of effectiveness of Ty resistance genes against mono and mixed infections of distinct local begomoviruses from Southeast Asia. </td>
										<td style="text-align:center">Japan Koeda et al. (2020) </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="text-align:left">Tomato/ Synergism </td>
										<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Crinivirus and Begomovirus</td>
										<td>TYLCV presented tropism for upper foliage in contrast to ToCV, which was present mainly on lower leaves. </td>
										<td style="text-align:center">China Li et al. (2021) </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="text-align:left">Tomato/ Synergism </td>
										<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Begomovirus</td>
										<td>Some begomoviruses can increase symptom severity and either promote or restrict host accumulation of other viruses. </td>
										<td style="text-align:center">Brazil Nogueira et al. (2021) </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="text-align:left">Tomato/ Synergism </td>
										<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Begomovirus (see symptoms in Figure 1). </td>
										<td style="font-style:italic">Tomato yellow mottle virus (ToYMoV), Tomato yellow mottle disease (ToYMoD), and Tomato leaf curl Sinaloa virus (ToLCSiV) / Vein clearing, crumpling, yellow mosaic, and stunted foliar. </td>
										<td style="text-align:center">Begomoviruses synergistic interaction will lead to increased disease severity. </td>
										<td style="text-align:center">Costa Rica Maliano et al. (2022) </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="text-align:left">Tomato/ Synergism </td>
										<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Begomovirus and Crinivirus</td>
										<td rowspan="10">TYLCV and ToCV / Severe curling and extensive yellowing in upper leaves, necrosis of newly emerging leaves. PepYLCIV, TYLCKaV, and ToLCNDV / Yellow mosaic, vein banding, cupping upward, leaf curling, reduced size, and stunting. TBRFV and PepMV / Necrosis and chlorosis STV, Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), and PepMV / Strong leaf deformation, severe symptoms of mosaic, differences in height and weight concerning controls. TYLCV and Tomato mottle virus (ToMoV) / Leaf curling, yellowing, and mosaic symptoms. ToSRV and ToRMV/ Yellow mosaic and leaf distortion CMV, Capsicum chlorosis virus (CaCV), and Groundnut bud necrosis virus (GBNV) / Concentric chlorotic ring spots, necrosis along with mosaic, and leaf malformation TYLCV, Cotton leaf curl Gezira virus (CLCuGeV), Okra yellow crinkle Cameroon alphasatellite (OYCrCMA), and Okra leaf curl Oman betasatellite (OLCuOMB) / Leaf curling, yellowing, and mosaic symptoms. CaCV, Chilli veinal mottle virus (ChiVMV), Large cardamom chirke virus (LCCV), CMV, PMMoV, and Chilli leaf curl virus (ChiLCV) / Mottling yellow-mosaic, leaf curling, chlorotic and necrotic spots. ToMV, Tomato golden mosaic virus (ToGMoV), and Pepper huasteco yellow vein virus (PHYVV) / foliar necrosis, yellow mottling, green vein banding, blistering, upward and downward curling, leaf malformation, and chlorosis. </td>
										<td style="text-align:center">Suggests antagonism and synergism occur at early and late stages, respectively. </td>
										<td style="text-align:center">Spain Ontiveros et al. (2022) </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="text-align:left">Peppers/ Synergism </td>
										<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Begomovirus</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">Severe monoinfection caused by PepYLCIV led to mixed infections with TYLCKaV. PepYLCIV and TYLCKaV infected resistant varieties of pepper plants without showing symptoms of infection. </td>
										<td style="text-align:center">Indonesia Wahyono et al. (2023) </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="text-align:left">Tomato/ Synergism </td>
										<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Tobamovirus and Potexvirus</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">Presence of PepMV and TBRFV in imported tomatoes in Florida grocery stores. </td>
										<td style="text-align:center">USA Yilmaz and Batuman (2023) </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="text-align:left">Tomato/ Synergism and Antagonism </td>
										<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Amalgavirus, Cucumovirus and Potexvirus</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">STV increased viral titer and induced symptoms by CMV at early infection stages, whereas PepMV titer did not change even though PepMV exacerbated symptoms. </td>
										<td style="text-align:center">Spain Elvira-González et al. (2021) </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="text-align:left">Tomato/ Antagonism </td>
										<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Begomovirus vs Tobamovirus</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">TYLCV produced an antagonistic effect on ToMoV systemic infection. </td>
										<td style="text-align:center">USA McLaughlin et al. (2022) </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="text-align:left">Tomato/ Antagonism </td>
										<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Begomovirus vs Begomovirus</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">Genes involved in replication (CR) are responsible for antagonism. </td>
										<td style="text-align:center">Brazil Nogueira et al. (2023) </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="text-align:left; font-style:italic">Capsicum sp. / Neutral </td>
										<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Cucumovirus and Potyvirus</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">Amino acid substitution of Ser129 by Pro129 of the CMV coat protein is required for mixed infection. </td>
										<td style="text-align:center">India Vinodhini et al. (2021) </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="text-align:left">Tomato and muskmelon / Neutral </td>
										<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Begomovirus</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">First report of mixed infection of bipartite and monopartite begomoviruses associated with tomato and melon DNA satellites. </td>
										<td style="text-align:center">Saudi Arabia AlHudaib et al. (2022) </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="text-align:left">Chili /No available </td>
										<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Orthotospovirus, Potyvirus, Macluravirus, Cucumovirus, Tobamovirus and Begomovirus</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">Widespread occurrence of mixed infections. First report of the detection of six chili viruses. </td>
										<td style="text-align:center">India Devi et al. (2022) </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="text-align:left">Tomato/ Synergism </td>
										<td style="text-align:center; font-style:italic">Tobamovirus and begomovirus</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">The co-infection of ToMV with begomovirus resulted in increased disease severity, reduced plant growth, and higher viral accumulation. ToMV exhibited a high mutation rate </td>
										<td style="text-align:center">Mexico Gonzalez-Perez et al. (2024) </td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f5">
							<label>Figure 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Symptom transition in the lower, middle, and upper leaves of tomato plants agroinoculated with the infectious cloned DNA-A and DNA-B components of isolates of TYLCV from Costa Rica (ToYMoV-[CR:Gre:GR1:90]) and <italic>Tomato leaf curl Sinaloa virus</italic> (ToLCSiV-[CR:Lib:L1:02]) from Costa Rica and the infectious clone of the genomic DNA of TYLCV from the Dominican Republic (TYLCV-[DO]) individually or in all combinations. (A) TYLCV; (B) non-inoculated tomato plant; (C) ToYMoV and ToLCSiV; (D) ToYMoV and TYLCV; (E) ToLCSiV and TYLCV; (F) ToYMoV, ToLCSiV and TYLCV. Plants were photographed 21 d after agroinoculation (with permission of <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Maliano <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>).</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-03-RMEXFIT24043-gf5.gif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f6">
							<label>Figure 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Plant components involved in viral mixed infections. Normal communication processes between plant cells involve the interrelation of structures such as plasmodesmata (A) and nucleus (B), the former are conducted in the cell walls that allow the passage of molecules between cytoplasm. In the presence of a viral infection (C), the cell counteracts the action through well-defined biochemical pathways such as inhibition of plasmodesmata function and intracellular trafficking (D), production of specific response metabolites (They can occur before and during the development of the viral infection), (E) or increase in the production of proteins involved in detoxification processes (F). In other hand, after a successful internalization by two viruses occurs synergistic effect of mixed viral infection (G).</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-03-RMEXFIT24043-gf6.gif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>PDLP5, while viruses belonging to the genus <italic>Begomovirus</italic> inhibited its expression, establishing that the activity in plasmodesmata (PD) largely depends on the type of virus. Thus, it would be interesting to know what the role of PDLP5 is would be concerning mixed infection with different viral genera.</p>
					<p>Plant metabolites encompass a vast number of organic compounds of different chemical natures, importance, and functions. They participate in the development of cellular processes, reproduction, protection, maturation, and senescence of plants (figure 1). There are scarce reports about the synthesis and functionality of plant metabolites when coinfections occur, changes in the type and accumulation patterns of phytochemicals have been observed (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">Zaynab <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>).</p>
					<p>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Fereres <italic>et al</italic>. (2016</xref>) investigated the alterations in the production pattern of volatile compounds in tomatoes infected by the circulative <italic>Tomato severe rugose virus</italic> (ToSRV) and the non-circulative <italic>Tomato chlorosis virus</italic> (ToCV). Analysis of individual compounds showed that tomato control plants emitted significantly higher amounts of the terpenes α-pinene, 4-carene, α-phellandrene, terpinene, and β-phellandrene than ToSRV-infected tomato plants, which indicated that ToSRV infection promotes suppression of some volatile terpenes. Additionally, the whiteflies showed a clear preference for uninfected plants, favoring the disease dispersion. These results suggested the ability of certain viruses to coevolve with their host, increasing their propagation through the modification of the synthesis patterns of volatile compounds in tomato plants. It would be interesting to discern if there is any connection in the synthesis of terpenes as a defense mechanism against insect vectors, especially for <italic>Bemisia tabaci</italic> (<italic>B. tabaci</italic>). However, the reduction in the concentration of terpenes was not associated with a greater attraction of the vector to ToSRV-infected plants.</p>
					<p>Subsequently, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">De <italic>et al</italic>. (2018</xref>) described that the synergistic infection of <italic>N. benthamiana</italic> by <italic>Potato virus X</italic> (PVX) and <italic>Potato virus A</italic> (PVA) increased the expression of the helper component proteinase (HCPro), a protein that causes disturbances to the methionine cycle in the host cell. In this experiment, through gene silencing of key plant enzymes, such as <italic>S</italic>-adenosyl-l-methionine synthetase (SAMS) and <italic>S</italic>-adenosyl-l-homocysteine hydrolase (SAHH), a significant reduction in glutathione reductase (GSH) was found. GSH is an important antioxidant in plant cells, and therefore, GSH deficiency may explain the symptoms observed during mixed PVX-PVA infection.</p>
					<p>Recently, a study published by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Pollari <italic>et al.</italic> (2022</xref>) found that when <italic>N. benthamiana</italic> is infected by poty- and potexviruses, the host’s metabolic response differs significantly depending on whether it is a mixed or monoinfection. In mixed infections, an increase in defense-related metabolites was found, and a low methylation potential of genetic material was suggested. Finally, it is concluded that infection-associated oxidative stress is successfully controlled in individual infections but not in synergistic infections.</p>
					<p>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Das <italic>et al.</italic> (2019</xref>) reported a set of secondary metabolites (terpenoids, and isoprenoids such as chlorophyll, carotenoids, phylloquinones, gibberellins, and abscisic acid), produced by <italic>N. benthamiana</italic> after the infection with TMV during cross-infection. Using the isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantification (iTRAQ) technique, it was possible to demonstrate during a mixed infection that a TMV-43A (a mutant where 43-nt of poly(A) were replaced), could cross-protect</p>
					<p><italic>N. benthamiana</italic> plants against a wild-type strain of TMV. In cross-protected plants, amino acid biosynthesis and photosynthetic activities were increased, supported by increased accumulation of crucial 1-deoxy-<italic>D</italic>-xylulose-5-phosphate reductoisomerase (DXR) and geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (GGPS) enzymes for the biosynthesis of chlorophyll. An increase in the abundance of enzymes related to the management of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and redox homeostasis, such as thioredoxins and <italic>L</italic>-ascorbate peroxidase, was also found in cross-protected plants.</p>
					<p>PD and metabolites synthesis are modified by the presence of viruses, although plant components related to mixed infections are scarce, other important sites in growth such as the apical system, or the ubiquitination mechanism could be viable for study and establish the role of these components in mixed viral infections.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>RNA interference system</title>
					<p>RNA-based silencing is a system whose main function is the maintenance of genome integrity, but plants have adapted this system as a protective mechanism, particularly against viruses. RNA-based silencing defense allows suppression of gene expression via sequence-specific interactions that are mediated by 21- to 24-nucleotide-long RNA molecules (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 3</xref>), (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Moissiard and Voinnet, 2004</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Cisneros and Carbonell, 2020</xref>). Under the premise that RNA sequences are directed to specific viral targets, it would be useful to know whether viruses with highly similar sequences can be targeted by the same microRNAs (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Kwon <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>); and</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f7">
							<label>Figure 3</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Gene silencing through small interfering RNA in vegetable cells. Internalization of the virus occurs (A), the viral RNA is protected by a viral capsid (B), the virus uses the cellular transcription machinery for the synthesis of viral proteins (C). DNA replication takes place in the nucleus (D), and a small interfering RNA is synthesized, which is subsequently matured and exported to the cytosol where after modifications short hairpin RNA is produced (E). Small RNA can act in several ways such as: by interfering with specific viral proteins (F), or by binding to the viral RNA and through the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) who interferes with the expression of viral genes (G).</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-03-RMEXFIT24043-gf7.gif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>which is the impact of gene silencing strategies against mixed viral infections and their effect on cross-protection (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Mohamed <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Leonetti <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">Turco <italic>et al</italic>. (2018</xref>) characterized the antiviral defense of cultivated solanaceous plants that carry mixed infections. In this experiment (Turco <italic>et al</italic>., 2018), tomato plants with resistance against the Chilean strain of PepMV (CH2) indirectly exerted a resistance effect to infection by the Peruvian genotype (LP strain) of the same virus. LP strain exposure to tomato plants preinfected with PepMV CH2 strain promoted alterations of the consensus genomic sequences in the viral species, indicating a broad potential for cross-protection Turco <italic>et al</italic>. (2018). Additionally, they found a broad association of small interfering RNA (siRNAs) with catalytic components of gene silencing, such as AGO 1, AGO 2, and AGO 3, involved with RNA interference (RNAi) in the cleavage of viral sequences (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 2</xref>). The authors remarked that the LP quasispecies (genotypic variants) undergo rapid evolution within an infected plant through the appearance and fixation of point mutations.</p>
					<p>Additionally, CH2 quasispecies were found to evolve rapidly, which can</p>
					<p>eventually create aggressive genetic variants with severe disease symptoms, and genetic stability is considered important for cross-protection against particular viral strains (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">Ziebell and Carr, 2010</xref>). The effectiveness of gene sequences mediating resistance in plants against viral coinfections has been addressed. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">Wen <italic>et al</italic>. (2013</xref>) highlighted the pivotal role of the <italic>TOM</italic>1 gene in the replication process of <italic>Hibiscus latent Singapore virus</italic> (HLSV) and TMV. In a study conducted on <italic>N. benthamiana</italic>, the plant exhibited mild symptoms rather than severe systemic necrosis, and cross- protection against mixed infections was demonstrated. While the mechanism behind protection during double viral infection remains unknown, it is established that the <italic>TOM</italic> genes play a crucial role in <italic>Tobamovirus</italic> multiplication.</p>
					<p>Subsequently, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Moreno-Pérez <italic>et al</italic>. (2016</xref>) reported that <italic>Pepper mild mottle virus</italic> (PMMoV) with the next amino acid mutations: M138N, T43K + D50G, L13F + G66V, M138N, T43K D50G and A87G in coat protein (CP) manages to overcome mediated resistance in plants, producing pleiotropic effects and influencing the expansion of the host’s range. In this experiment, phenotypes sensitive and resistant to the <italic>L</italic> gene of pepper were evaluated in a proficiency test, finding that the effects that break the resistance of the plant depend on the specific mutation, the genotype of the susceptible host, and the type of infection (monoinfection or mixed). Consequently, pleiotropic effects can be negative, positive, or absent based on the nature of the virus.</p>
					<p>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">Wang <italic>et al</italic>. (2021</xref>) reported advances in the understanding of RNAi activation during viral infection. The experiments conducted in <italic>N. benthamiana</italic> demonstrated that wounding activated the calmodulin-3 binding transcription factor (CAMTA3) and BN2 bifunctional nuclease via the Ca++ ion-associated signaling cascade (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Toyota <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>). This set of proteins is responsible for assembling and stabilizing mRNA coding for key components of the RNAi machinery. The authors mention that ARGONAUTE1 and DICER-LIKE1 play a leading role in the degradation of microRNAs. CAMTA3 or BN2 knockout plants showed increased susceptibility to <italic>Begomovirus</italic> and <italic>Potyvirus</italic> infections, and particularly, the V2 protein present in geminiviruses disrupts the calmodulin-CAMTA3 interaction to counteract RNAi defense. These findings associate Ca++ signaling with the initiation of RNAi- mediated defense and reveal the versatility of antiviral defense. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Elvira-González <italic>et al</italic>. (2021</xref>) reported the profile of siRNAs obtained from <italic>S. lycopersicum</italic> subjected to mixed infection with unrelated viruses. In the experiment, tomato plants were inoculated with CMV, PepMV, and <italic>Southern tomato virus</italic> (STV), and it was found that up to 47 miRNAs were differentially expressed in plants that were infected with these viruses compared to control plants inoculated. Finally, the siRNAs with differential expression found in this work were mainly involved in fundamental plant processes, such as development, metabolism, and abiotic and biotic stress, and the frequencies of siRNAs were not uniform, nor did they show influence by the type of virus. This is one of the first reports establishing the characteristics of plant defense mediated by RNAi silencing when a plant is faced with a mixed infection.</p>
					<p>In plants, RNAi-mediated antiviral defense is mediated by complementarity with foreign sequences (viral sequences). The synergistic characteristics due to mixed infections raise broad and robust questions about the specificity and coverage of the action of RNAi sequences against viruses involved in coinfections. Actually, few indicators evidence differences as clear as the RNAi produced by the plant to deal with monoinfection <italic>vs.</italic> mixed infections.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Viral protein components involved in mixed infections</title>
					<p>The continuity of the viral lineage when infecting a plant can be considered the common purpose of plant viruses; under this premise, a virus has a series of proteins responsible for conducting three fundamental situations. First, adhesion to the host cell, followed by internalization mediated by various means (masking, protein mimicry, etc.), and finally genome replication. The probability of success in conducting all the stages will depend on factors that are not typical of viruses (defense system mediated by proteins and plant genetic material) and on their own characteristics. Then, we analyze the most recognized viral proteins and discern the intricate processes they overcome to achieve their goal. We emphasize that the structures described in this section are based on characteristics observed in monoinfection because studies evaluating the characteristics of these proteins in mixed infections are scarce.</p>
					<p>The CP plays a fundamental role in the assembly of viral particles and has been established as a target for the development of molecules against plant viruses (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">Wu <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Basu <italic>et al</italic>. (2021</xref>) reported that in the next begomoviruses: <italic>Tomato leaf curl New Delhi virus</italic> (ToLCNDV) and <italic>Tomato leaf curl Gujarat virus</italic> (ToLCGuV) the proteins AV-2 (pre-CP) and AC-2 (transcriptional activator protein) have functioned as modulators of the viral coinfection process in tomato and <italic>N. benthamiana</italic>. Both viruses presented synergism in an <italic>in vitro</italic> assay in tomato and <italic>N. benthamiana</italic> plants and promoted the appearance of extreme symptoms of infection. The authors suggest that AC2 and AV2 of ToLCGuV asymmetrically increase ToLCNDV accumulation and that the presence of this type of viral protein favors suppression of gene silencing in <italic>N. benthamiana</italic> and tomato plants. Through a reversal of the GFP silencing assay, (briefly, transgenic plants that expressed AC2 and AV2 were validated through GFP assay; subsequently, plants were infiltrated with <italic>A. tumefaciens</italic> containing desired constructs) suppressor activity of the viral encoded proteins was obtained with the siRNAs isolations after 6 days post-infection. The authors suggested that AV2 suppressor activity is attributed to blocking the propagation of RNA silencing signals in the leaves and concluded that the proteins encoded by ToLCGuV promote the efficient replication of ToLCNDV via the antiviral silencing pathway.In some genera of plant viruses, CP is essential in the infection process by recruiting and interacting with various cellular structures (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Bennett and Agbandje-McKenna, 2020</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Mochizuki <italic>et al</italic>. (2014</xref>) showed that the CP mutation (P129) reduced the expression of genes related to chloroplast function and photosynthesis in CMV-infected tobacco plants. Other proteins of the replication process, such as virulence complement 2b, were also associated with asymptomatic phenotypes and low viral titers. The authors concluded that the effect of the mutation increased the capacity for pathogenicity due to CMV acquiring virulence through CP amino acid mutations, leading to structural abnormalities in chloroplasts. Subsequently, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">Zhang <italic>et al</italic>. (2017</xref>) reported that the E96 mutation of CP from <italic>Cucumber green mottle mosaic virus</italic> (CGMMV) is important to the developmental pathogenesis process. <italic>In vitro</italic> assays with <italic>N. benthamiana</italic> E96 CGMMV mutants produced a successful infection, and this study indicated that modifications in the CP assembly site in cells can be affected by mutations in the crucial amino acid E96. For this reason, other mutants conducted in this same study, such as E96A and E96K, and three double mutants, V94A-E96K, V97-E96K, and T104A-E96K, showed only late systemic traits of infection in <italic>N. benthamiana</italic>, highlighting the role of the E96 residue in the infection process.</p>
					<p>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">Shi <italic>et al</italic>. (2023</xref>) reported that in the <italic>Tobamovirus</italic> genus the CP and MP display the ability to interact to facilitate viral movement through PD. It was determined <italic>in vitro</italic> that the MP protein region between residues 78 and 128 was important for viral movement. Specifically, the threonine residue at position 107 in MP (T107MP) is crucial for CP-MP interaction and the T107A substitution delays systemic CGMMV infection in <italic>N. benthamiana</italic>. Mutations in other evaluated residues, such as F17AMP and D97AMP inhibited CGMMV infection, suggesting that the latter have no role in the CP-MP interaction but regulate CP-independent MP function. Additionally, it was found that the coexpression of MP and CP from CGMMV in <italic>N. benthamiana</italic> increases the accumulation of CP and that the interaction of both proteins inhibits the defense response mediated by salicylic acid in the early stages of infection. Finally, the authors concluded that the suppression of the host’s antiviral defense triggered by CP-MP interaction facilitates systemic infection.</p>
					<p>Understanding the role of CP in the infection process has allowed notable advances that may be applied in the future for the control of viral infections in plants. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Liu <italic>et al</italic>. (2020</xref>) reported that CGMMV mutant strains presented useful phenotypic characteristics for virus-specific control by cross-protection. Through site-directed mutagenesis, it was possible to obtain CPCGMMV mutants that were subsequently inoculated in <italic>N. benthamiana</italic> until symptoms were observed. Specifically, the CP mutation of residue D89 (D89A) reduced symptoms of CGMMV infection in leaves and veins<italic>.</italic> The obtained CP mutant clones showed an important feature for the regulation of CGMMV virulence and can be developed as a successful model for the containment of virulent strains of this specific type of virus. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Sharma <italic>et al</italic>. (2020</xref>) also suggested the great utility of CPTMV as a model for generating mutants to confer viral resistance to future infections and develop cross- protection. Specifically, the CPTMV T42W and E50Q mutants showed the presence of highly stable long nonhelical rods that interfere with the accumulation of MP and promote the molecular disassembly of TMV in the host cell. Because cross- protection is considered within mixed viral infections, the results indicate that this type of methodology could provide adequate protection against TMV infection.</p>
					<p>We have previously described the characteristics of reported proteins during</p>
					<p>the viral infection process. Although the functions are established, new research is needed to understand what happens when orthologous proteins from different virus species interact in a mixed infection, and why not estimating to determine the extent to which a protein-protein interaction favors viral synergism or crossed protection, or even if such an interaction could trigger the development of viral antagonism.</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Perspectives and conclusion</title>
				<p>Viral control strategies depend to a large extent on the understanding of natural phenomena including viral pathogenesis and its aspects, such as mono- and coinfections. Preliminary investigations in this field may in the future be the foundation for the implementation of programs for the control of mixed viral infections in vegetables of agronomic interest. One of the most accepted theories</p>
				<p>about mixed infections from related viruses is that since they have similar entry mechanisms into the host cell and share the arsenal of proteins involved in the infection process, the chances of developing coinfection increase (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Ng and Falk, 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Tamborindeguy <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). Although this phenomenon is possible and demonstrable in multipartite viruses of the <italic>Closteroviridae, Geminiviridae, Nanoviridae, Potyviridae</italic>, and <italic>Rhabdoviridae</italic> families (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Lucía-Sanz and Manrubia, 2017</xref>), it does not work the same way for other viruses. <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figure 4</xref> shows a mixed infection of <italic>tobamovirus</italic> with <italic>potexvirus,</italic> with a synergistic effect on the phenotype. However, for the <italic>tobamoviru</italic>s genus, where some species present genetic similarity (example: <italic>Tomato mottle mosaic virus</italic> (ToMMV) and <italic>Tomato mosaic virus</italic> (ToMV)) there are no reports on mixed infections (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">Tettey <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Syller and Grupa (2016</xref>) highlight that related viral infections generally produce antagonism; in this context, studies conducted on <italic>Turnip crinkle virus</italic> (TCV) establish that positive sense (+) RNA viruses, through a viral function that is still unknown, “denies” the offspring viruses the possibility of replicating their genomes in cells from their “parents”, leading to highly homologous superinfecting viruses that are indistinguishable from the progeny (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">Tatineni and French, 2016</xref>). Currently, SIE explains how viruses are evolutionarily selected by maintaining an optimal error frequency in the progeny genomes. Although primarily based on observations made in TCV, this new model could be applied to other viruses to understand how SIE influences evolutionarily conserved virus-encoded function that minimizes the proliferation of replication errors. In this way, SIE is established as a molecular mechanism that promotes antagonism and must be strengthened in solanaceous and cucurbitaceous model plants (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">Yin <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">Zhou <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f8">
						<label>Figure 4</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Symptom development on tomato leaves (cv. Macizo) infected with TBRFV and PepMV in a mono and mixed infections (synergism) at 21 days post-inoculation, (photography donated kindly by the Dr. Tovar-Pedraza group, CIAD Culiacan, México).</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-03-RMEXFIT24043-gf8.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>High-throughput sequencing (HTS) technologies make possible to discern the origins of mixed infections more accurately and quickly. Specifically, technologies such as Oxford Nanopore Technologies (ONT) focused on long reads, present sufficient sensitivity to detect related viral agents, as reported by previous authors (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Abou Kubaa <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Lee <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">van Rengs <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>). Additionally, RNAi is becoming a versatile and ecological alternative for the protection of crops of economic interest (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Bharathi <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). Host-induced gene silencing (HIGS) and spray-induced gene silencing (SIGS) are trends in RNAi delivery technologies. These methodologies make use of encapsulation to improve the effectiveness of gene silencing by RNAi; also, it confers protection and stability to RNA, preventing it from undergoing enzymatic or pH modifications (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Mitter <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>). However, the greatest challenge of these procedures lies in achieving stability and avoiding premature degradation of RNAi in the environment. Most of the current research on encapsulated RNAi is mainly focused on oral administration to control insects by silencing essential genes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Hernández-Soto and Chacón-Cerdas, 2021</xref>). There is incipient research on the application of RNAi for the improvement of the characteristics of crops of interest as reported by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">Termolino, (2021</xref>) but are no reports of this technology being used to counteract mixed viral infections. However, the first evidence of its use and effectiveness against viruses that infect crops of commercial interest has already been established in previous reports (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">Worrall <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>).</p>
				<p>Thanks to the application of new sequencing technologies, the virus-host</p>
				<p>relationship has been elucidated. Viral synergism is the most studied coinfection, and its objective is to enhance dual resources to achieve infection. By comparison, antagonism or neutral coinfection is a way for viruses to proliferate while competing with other organisms, decreasing the establishment chances of the latter. New ecological niches, hosts, vectors, and modes of transmission of viruses that infect plants are taking place in nature.</p>
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				<title>Acknowledgments</title>
				<p> </p>
				<p>To Sistema Nacional de Investigadores (SNI) and Consejo Nacional de Humanidades, Ciencias y Tecnologías (CONAHCYT) for financial support (postdoctoral fellowship 2023-2024, CVU 492022 and postdoctoral fellowship 2023-2025, CVU 626768).</p>
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