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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">rmfi</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Revista mexicana de fitopatología</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Rev. mex. fitopatol</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">0185-3309</issn>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2007-8080</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedad Mexicana de Fitopatología A.C.</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.18781/R. MEX.FIT.2404-6</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artículo de Revisión</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title><italic>Sclerotinia sclerotiorum</italic> en frijol y papa en Sinaloa: Etiología, epidemiología y alternativas de manejo</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Félix-Gastélum</surname>
						<given-names>Rubén</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1">*</xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Herrera-Rodríguez</surname>
						<given-names>Gabriel</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Ávila-Alistac</surname>
						<given-names>Norma</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>León</surname>
						<given-names>Elizabeth</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<institution content-type="original">1 Universidad Autónoma de Occidente, Unidad Regional Los Mochis, Departamento de Ciencias Naturales y Exactas, Bulevard Macario Gaxiola y Carretera Internacional s/n, CP 81223. Los Mochis, Sinaloa, México;</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidad Autónoma de Occidente</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Autónoma de Occidente</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<postal-code>81223</postal-code>
					<city>Los Mochis</city>
					<state>Sinaloa</state>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2 </label>
				<institution content-type="original">Junta Local de Sanidad Vegetal del Valle del Fuerte. Lázaro Cárdenas, PTE. 315, Colonia Centro, Los Mochis Sinaloa, CP. 81200, México; </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Junta Local de Sanidad Vegetal del Valle del Fuerte</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Junta Local de Sanidad Vegetal del Valle del Fuerte</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<city>Los Mochis</city>
					<state>Sinaloa</state>
					<postal-code>81200</postal-code>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>3</label>
				<institution content-type="original"> Departamento de Producción Agrícola y Animal, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Unidad Xochimilco, Xochimilco, CDMX, México C.P. 04960; </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<city>Xochimilco</city>
					<state>CDMX</state>
					<postal-code>04960</postal-code>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4">
				<label>4</label>
				<institution content-type="original"> Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias, Campo Experimental Valle del Fuerte. Carretera Internacional México-Nogales Km. 1609. Juan José Ríos, Guasave, Sinaloa. C.P. 81110, México.</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<city>Guasave</city>
					<state>Sinaloa</state>
					<postal-code>81110</postal-code>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1">
					<label><italic>*</italic></label><bold>
 <italic>Autor de correspondencia</italic>:</bold> Ruben Félix-Gastélum <email>ruben.felix@uadeo.mx</email>
				</corresp>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>19</day>
				<month>02</month>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<season>Sep-Dec</season>
				<year>2024</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>42</volume>
			<issue>3</issue>
			<elocation-id>RMEXFIT24046</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>22</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>11</day>
					<month>06</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
					<license-p>Este es un artículo publicado en acceso abierto bajo una licencia Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>RESUMEN</title>
				<p> </p>
				<p>El moho blanco (<italic>Sclerotinia sclerotiorum</italic>) es la principal enfermedad del frijol y de la papa en Sinaloa. Se describen los síntomas y signos de la enfermedad, las características culturales y morfológicas del teleomorfo del patógeno, su ecología y la epidemiología de la enfermedad. Se aborda la implementación de un sistema de predicción que contempla la germinación carpogénica de los esclerocios y la fenología del frijol y de la papa para el manejo de la enfermedad. Dicho sistema incluye la temperatura del suelo a 2.5 cm de profundidad y la floración en dichos cultivos. Una vez que en el suelo ocurren temperaturas de 13 a 19 °C e inicia la floración en los cultivos, se realiza la primera aplicación preventiva de fungicida sintético contra la enfermedad. Estudios de laboratorio indicaron que <italic>Trichoderma harzianum</italic>, <italic>T. viride</italic> y <italic>T. atroviride</italic> ejercen inhibición <italic>in vitro</italic> contra <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> y controlaron el moho blanco en campo, pues hubo un incremento en el rendimiento de 40 %, con respecto a las parcelas que se aplicaron con el fungicida fluazinam. Se proponen nuevas líneas de investigación enfocadas a la ecología del patógeno y al manejo de la enfermedad donde se incluyan estos hongos benéficos en el sistema de predicción.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
				<title>Palabras clave:</title>
				<kwd>Phaselus vulgaris</kwd>
				<kwd>Solanum tuberosum</kwd>
				<kwd>Epidemiología</kwd>
				<kwd>Trichoderma</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="8"/>
				<table-count count="0"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="59"/>
				<page-count count="0"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introducción</title>
			<p>En México, el cultivo del frijol (<italic>Phaseolus vulgaris</italic>) y de la papa (<italic>Solanum tuberosum</italic>) cubrieron una superficie de 1,472,462 y 60,102 ha en 2022, respectivamente. La producción de frijol alcanzó 965,371 t con un valor de 16,984 millones de pesos; mientras que de papa se cosecharon 1,878,976 t con un valor de 16,173 millones de pesos (SIAP, 2022). En Sinaloa, en el mismo año se sembraron 58, 925 ha de frijol con un rendimiento de 165,475 t y un valor de la producción de 3,271 millones de pesos. De papa se sembraron 11,975 ha con una producción 403,923 t con un valor de 3, 363 millones de pesos. Las enfermedades fungosas resaltan como factor limitante en ambos cultivos en Sinaloa; por ejemplo, en frijol ocurren pudriciones de raíz (<italic>Fusarium</italic> spp., <italic>Rhizoctonia solani</italic>, <italic>Pythium</italic> spp., <italic>Macrophomina phaseolina</italic> y <italic>Sclerotium rolfsii</italic>), el moho blanco (<italic>Sclerotinia sclerotiorum</italic>), la roya o chahuixtle (<italic>Uromyces appendiculatus</italic> var. <italic>appendiculatus</italic>) (RodríguezCota <italic>et al</italic>., 2022), además de la cenicilla (<italic>Erysiphe diffusa</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Félix-Gastélum <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>). En el caso de enfermedades bacterianas sobresalen el tizón común (<italic>Xanthomonas axonopodis</italic> pv. <italic>phaseoli</italic>) (Rodríguez-Cota <italic>et al</italic>., 2022) y el tizón del halo <italic>Pseudomaonas syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Félix-Gastélum <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>).</p>
			<p><italic>Sclerotinia sclerotiorum</italic> es un fitopatógeno que ataca a 408 especies pertene-</p>
			<p>cientes a 278 géneros y 75 familias; la mayoría de las especies susceptibles se ubican en la subclase Dicotiledonae, del grupo de las angiospermas, aunque también puede atacar varios miembros de la subclase Monocotiledonae (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Boland y Hall, 1994</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Islam <italic>et al.,</italic> 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Jahan <italic>et al.,</italic> 2022</xref>) y puede presentarse como endofítico en cereales como arroz (<italic>Oryza sativa</italic>), trigo (<italic>Triticum aestivum</italic>), maíz (<italic>Zea mays</italic>), cebada (<italic>Hordeum vulgare</italic>) y Avena (<italic>Avena sativa</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Tian <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). Las pérdidas anuales por moho blanco en Estados Unidos de Norteamérica superan los 200 millones de dólares (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Bolton <italic>et al</italic>., 2006</xref>). En Sinaloa la enfermedad se ha consignado en berenjena (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Cebreros-Sánchez y Sánchez-Castro,1998</xref>) y en frijol (RodríguezCota <italic>et al</italic>., 2022), con pérdidas del 50 %, mientras que en papa pueden alcanzar el 30 %; a pesar de ello, no se han realizado investigación aplicada, orientada al manejo de la enfermedad. En la presente revisión se describen los síntomas del moho blanco en frijol y en papa en el norte de Sinaloa, las características morfológicas del teleomorfo de <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic>, su ecología y la epidemiología de la enfermedad, así como las estrategias para su manejo en otras partes del mundo. Se indica además la situación actual del manejo de la enfermedad en Sinaloa y futuras líneas de investigación que se deberán abordar para el control eficiente del moho blanco del frijol y de la papa en esta región.</p>
			<sec>
				<title>Síntomas y signos de la enfermedad</title>
				<p>Las plantas de frijol y papa infectadas por <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> muestran el típico micelio blanco con aspecto algodonoso, el cual se observa en la superficie del tejido infectado. El micelio produce celulasas y pectinasas e intervienen en el proceso de infección y provocan pudrición de tejidos de la planta (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Fernando <italic>et al</italic>., 2004</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Bolton <italic>et al</italic>., 2006</xref>). El micelio también produce ácido oxálico, que tiene efectos tóxicos en el tejido del hospedante (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Hegedus y Rimmer, 2005</xref>). En campo se observan plantas marchitas, las cuales presentan lesiones acuosas en tallos hojas y vainas; al tejido infectado lo cubre micelio blanquecino; en estados avanzados ocurren aglomeraciones de micelio, las cuales maduran y se transforman en esclerocios negros de diversas formas que varía de 0.5 a 1.7 cm y se encuentran principalmente en la superficie del tejido blanquecino, aunque, también se pueden encontrar en el interior de los tallos (Hooker, 1981).</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title><bold>Características morfológicas del agente causal del moho blanco (<italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic>) en Sinaloa</bold></title>
				<p>El moho blanco del frijol y de la papa ocurre año tras año en Sinaloa y las colonias de <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> aisladas en papa dextrosa agar (PDA) son algodonosas blanquecinas regulares con crecimiento ligeramente elevado y los esclerocios se producen en doble círculo en la caja Petri, en el centro y en el margen de la colonia junto a la pared de la caja Petri (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>A). Aun cuando las colonias del hongo obtenido de papa fueron similares a las de frijol los esclerocios se produjeron de manera dispersa sobre el PDA (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>C). Se han consignado varias especies de <italic>Sclerotinia</italic> como fitopatógenas, pero en esta región del país, sólo se ha identificado a <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> como agente causal (Mora-Romero <italic>et al</italic>., 2016). El hongo sobrevive el verano mediante esclerocios de 0.5 a 1.7 cm de longitud, cuando se producen en frijol (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>B) y de 0.3 a 1.0 cm cuando se producen en papa (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>D) los que producen de uno a varios apotecios de color café claro de 0.5 a 0.8 cm de diámetro (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>D). Los apotecios son más frecuentes en lotes de papa, lo que probablemente se debe a los altos niveles de humedad que se generan por los sistemas de riego por aspersión. El himenio de los apotecios presenta ascas de 85.0 a 160.0 µm X 3.0 a 5.5 µm (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>B) y paráfisis hialinas; las ascosporas también son hialinas, unicelulares, ovoides a elípticas de 5 a 7.0 µm (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>C).</p>
				<p>Observaciones de campo en Sinaloa indican que en frijol es frecuente el inicio</p>
				<p>de la enfermedad en la base del tallo de las plantas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref> A), por lo que es probable que la infección inicial ocurra mediante la germinación directa de los esclerocios (miceliogénica); de ahí, el síntoma avanza a tallos, foliolos y vainas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref> B y 2 C) donde se forma micelio algodonoso y blanquecino causando una pudrición suave, donde inicia la formación de esclerocios (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref> D). Esta observación coincide con trabajos previos donde los esclerocios germinan produciendo micelio que causa infección en las plantas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Abawi y Grogan, 1979</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Lane <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f1">
						<label>Figura 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Crecimiento micelial y esclerocios de <italic>Sclerotinia sclerotiorum</italic>. A). Crecimiento del hongo obtenida de frijol y esclerocios en doble círculo en caja de Petri con PDA; B). Esclerocios de color café claro producidos en plantas de frijol en campo; C). Crecimiento del hongo obtenido de planta de papa con esclerocios dispersos en caja de Petri con PDA; D). Esclerocios color negro producidos en plantas de papa en campo.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-03-RMEXFIT24046-gf1.gif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>En papa, se han observado esclerocios en el interior de los tallos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>A) así como apotecios del hongo en la superficie del suelo (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>D) con ascas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>B) y ocho ascosporas en su interior (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>C); también se han observado inflorescencias infectadas que caen sobre las hojas, y a partir de este punto ocurren los síntomas iniciales de la enfermedad (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>E) la cual avanza e invade el resto de las partes de la planta (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>F). También se han observado tallos sobre el suelo</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f2">
						<label>Figura 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Síntomas y signos el moho blanco en frijol. A). Síntomas de la enfermedad que inician en la base del tallo de la planta; B). Progreso de síntomas y signos en tallos; C). Síntomas y signos en vainas; D). Tallos blanquecinos invadidos por <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> con aglomeración de micelio y abundantes esclerocios.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-03-RMEXFIT24046-gf2.gif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f3">
						<label>Figura 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Estructuras del teleomorfo de <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic>, síntomas y signos del moho blanco. A). Tallo de papa con esclerocios en su interior; B). Fragmento del himenio de un apotecio con ascas, ascosporas y paráfisis; C). Asca con ocho ascosporas en su interior; D). Apotecios producidos por esclerocios en la superficie del suelo; E). Síntoma inicial de moho blanco en hoja de papa a partir de una inflorescencia infectada; F). Pudrición suave de hojas y presencia de micelio sobre tejido infectado; G). Tallo sobre suelo colonizado por el hongo con abundante micelio blanquecino.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-03-RMEXFIT24046-gf3.gif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>con síntomas y signos de la enfermedad (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>G), donde la infección puede originarse a partir de la germinación directa de esclerocios.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title><bold>Ecología de <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic>
</bold></title>
				<p><italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> es un hongo habitante del suelo y su medio de supervivencia lo constituyen los esclerocios (Sousa-Melo <italic>et al</italic>., 2019), la capa externa de los esclerocios está integrada por células que contienen melanina (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Butler <italic>et al</italic>. 2009</xref>), lo que protege al hongo de la luz ultravioleta, metales tóxicos, enzimas líticas y microorganismos antagónicos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Butler y Day, 1998</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Thomma, 2003</xref>). En algunos suelos sembrados con frijol se han encontrado promedios de 0.6 a 6.2 esclerocios por kg de suelo (Schwartz y Steadman, 1977). La temperatura del suelo, pH, y la humedad, parecen tener un efecto limitado en la supervivencia de los esclerocios, pero el componente biológico tiene un efecto mayor en la supervivencia de éstos en el suelo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Adams y Ayers,1979</xref>). La cantidad de esclerocios en el suelo se puede incrementar en dos formas: a) la producción de esclerocios secundarios y b) la producción de éstos en el hospedante (Adams y Ayers, 1979).</p>
				<p>La amplia gama de hospedantes del hongo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Toby <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>), así como los monocultivos susceptibles conduce al incremento de poblaciones de esclerocios en el suelo. Se ha observado que la supervivencia de los esclerocios varía de acuerdo con la profundidad que se encuentran; estudios demostraron que los esclerocios colocados a una profundidad mayor de 10 a 30 cm permanecieron viables por más tiempo que aquellos que permanecieron a 5 cm (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Cosic <italic>et al.,</italic> 2012</xref>). También se reportó que la viabilidad de los esclerocios de <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> a 0, 5 y10 cm disminuyó con la profundidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Duncan <italic>et al</italic>. 2006</xref>). Otros trabajos indicaron que los esclerocios de <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> permanecen viables en el suelo por ocho o 10 años años (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">ColeySimth y Cooke, 1971</xref>). Se demostró que 3.2 esclerocios por m2 pueden causar 95 % de incidencia en frijol “kidney” en condiciones de campo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Suzui y Kobayashi (1972</xref>). Sin embargo, 0.2 esclerocios por kg de suelo podían causar moho blanco en niveles moderadamente severos en frijol (Schwartz y Steadman, 1977). Por otra parte, las ascosporas constituyen la fuente de inóculo primario pues germinan y colonizan tejido senescente y a partir de éste, el hongo invade diferentes partes de la planta (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Hossain <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>).</p>
				<p><italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> se disemina de un lote de siembra a otro o de una región a otra en varias maneras: a) en forma de micelio adherido a la superficie de la semilla, b) equipos de labranza (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">Zubieta-Coronado, 2021</xref>), animales o el hombre (Starr <italic>et al</italic>., 1953). Se ha observado que alrededor del 2 % de los esclerocios ingeridos por borregos, permanecen viables después de pasar por su sistema digestivo, lo que sugiere que este tipo de ganado y otros animales pueden diseminar esclerocios a terrenos libres del patógeno (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Brown, 1937</xref>). El agua de riego, representa otro medio de diseminación de los esclerocios, donde permanecen viables de 10 a 21 días (Steadman <italic>et al.,</italic> 1975); sin embargo, la diseminación a grandes distancias ocurre a través de semilla infectada por micelio como en girasol (<italic>Helianthus annuus</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Young y Morris, 1927</xref>), repollo (<italic>Brassica oleracea</italic> var. <italic>capitata</italic>), coliflor (<italic>Brassica oleracea</italic> var. <italic>botrytis</italic>), col rizada (<italic>Brassica oleracea</italic> var. <italic>sabellica</italic>) (Neergaard, 1958.), trébol (<italic>Trifolium</italic> sp.) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Dillon-Weston <italic>et al</italic>., 1946</xref>), frijol (Starr <italic>et al</italic>., 1953) y cacahuate (<italic>Arachis hypogaea</italic>) (Porter y Beute, 1974). El aire como elemento de diseminación de ascosporas también se ha considerado en años recientes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Leyronas, 2019</xref>; Reich <italic>et al</italic>., 2024).</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Epidemiología del moho blanco del frijol y de la papa</title>
				<p>Las epidemias de moho blanco en frijol y papa inician por ascosporas que se producen en apotecios que se originan a partir de esclerocios (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Abawi y Grogan, 1979</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Cook <italic>et al</italic>., 1975</xref>; Schwartz y Steadman, 1978; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Clarkson, <italic>et al</italic>., 2003</xref>). Aunque en Sinaloa se ha observado daño en tallos de papa sobre el fondo del surco; en plantas de frijol también se presentan daños en la base del tallo, lo que ocurre mediante germinación directa de esclerocios. Así, que la producción de apotecios por los esclerocios en frijol es esencial en el desarrollo de epidemias (Abawi y Grogan, 1979). En cambio, en algunas regiones de Canadá, los esclerocios pueden producir micelio directamente para causar infección debajo del nivel del suelo en girasol, aunque también puede ocurrir infección mediante ascosporas provenientes de apotecios (Hung y Hoes, 1980). Sólo los apotecios que se encuentran en la superficie del suelo a 2.0-3.0 cm de profundidad liberan ascosporas, pues el estípite (pie) de los apotecios no superan los 3.0 cm de longitud y aquellos que se encuentra a profundidades mayores, no afloran sobre la superficie del suelo y no lanzan las ascosporas al aire, pues la intensidad de luz no es suficiente para su formación (Sun y Yang, 2000). El inicio de una epidemia no necesariamente ocurre por ascosporas producidas en un determinado lote, sino que éstas pueden provenir de lotes vecinos, inclusive de algunas arvenses como diente de león (<italic>Taraxacum officinale</italic>) y trébol (<italic>Trifolium</italic> spp.) (Cooke <italic>et al</italic>., 1975). Los primeros apotecios aparecen cuando el cultivo cubre el 100 % de la superficie del suelo y la evaporación disminuye (Abawi y Grogan, 1979).</p>
				<p>Se ha observado que la exposición de esclerocios a sequías extremas y altas</p>
				<p>temperaturas tienen efecto detrimental en la producción de apotecios por los esclerocios; sin embargo, estos permanecen viables por tres años a una profundidad de 20 a 25 cm en el suelo (Peltier <italic>et al</italic>., 2012). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Hao <italic>et al.</italic> (2007</xref>) demostraron que la germinación carpogénica de los esclerocios ocurrió entre 15 y 20 °C, cuando el potencial mátrico de agua en el suelo fue de -0.03 a 0.07 MPa; pero no se produjeron apotecios a temperatura superiores a 26 °C (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Clarkson <italic>et al</italic>., 2003</xref>). Los apotecios producen ascosporas cuya dispersión del punto de origen puede variar de 25 cm (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Suzui y Kobayashi, 1972</xref>) a varios km (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Leyronas <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>) y la temperatura óptima para su germinación sobre flores de frijol con humedad libre es de 21 °C (Shahovesi y del Río-Mendoza, 2020); también se ha establecido que las ascosporas se liberan a 15 °C en luz y oscuridad continua y regímenes de humedad relativa de 90 a 95 % y 65 a 75 % con la liberación de 7.6 x105 ascosporas por apotecio en 20 días. La liberación de ascosporas de <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> en campo se han observado al medio día (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Harthill, 1976</xref>; Raynal, 1990), lo cual podría estar relacionado con la temperatura que con la luz del día (Clarkson <italic>et al</italic>., 2003).</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Manejo del moho blanco</title>
				<p>Para el manejo del moho blanco se ha recurrido a la solarización (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Ferraz, 2003</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Supriya <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Juliatti <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>), rotación de cultivos y control químico (Kurozawa y Pavan, 1997). Debido a los bajos niveles de resistencia de los hospedantes al patógeno, se ha empleado un grupo amplio de fungicidas para el control de la enfermedad; por ejemplo, en Estados Unidos de Norteamérica, Canadá, Australia, China y Europa utilizan boscalid, fluazinam, fluxapyroxad, pyraclostrobin, penthiopyrad, picoxystrobin, prothioconazole y trifloxystrobin, tetraconazole, thiophanato metilo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Matheron y Porchas, 2004</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Bradley <italic>et al</italic>., 2006</xref> y <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Wang <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>). La efectividad biológica de procymidone y fluazinam se demostró en el control del moho blanco en soya, cuando se aplicaron al inicio de la floración y a los 15 días después de iniciada la misma (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Hideki-Sumida <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>). En Sinaloa se usan carbendazim, benomilo, metil-tiofanato y fluazinam, para el control de la enfermedad en frijol y papa (Rodríguez-Cota <italic>et al.</italic>, 2022; Comunicación personal, Ing. Joel González; Pasa, SA de CV, Los Mochis, Sinaloa) en ambos cultivos se logra una eficacia de control del 85 al 90 % cuando se aplican en forma preventiva. Los fungicidas boscalid+pyraclostrobin, carbendazim, fluazinam, fludioxonil+ ciprodinil y procloraz mostraron efectividad <italic>in vitro</italic> en la inhibición del crecimiento micelial de <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> al igual que los productos biorracionales: ácido salicílico, dióxido de hidrógeno, extracto de semilla de toronja (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Ayala-Armenta <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>). No existe evidencia en campo sobre la efectividad biológica de estas sustancias excepto carbendazim y fluazinam (Rodríguez-Cota <italic>et al.</italic>, 2022).</p>
				<p>Con relación al control biológico, la actividad de los agentes antagónicos es</p>
				<p>afectada por factores abióticos y bióticos como temperatura, tipo de suelo y humedad del mismo, pH, plaguicidas, materia orgánica, microorganismos del suelo, especies de plantas, entre otros, lo que conduce a que este tipo de agentes sean menos eficaces que los fungicidas de síntesis química (Smolińska y Kowalska, 2018). Varias especies de hongos han mostrado un control biológico con la actividad micoparásita contra <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> sobresaliendo <italic>Coniothyrium minitans</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Huang y Hoes, 1976</xref>; McQuilken <italic>et al</italic>., 1995; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Zeng <italic>et al</italic>., 2012</xref>b; Patel <italic>et al</italic>., 2020). Aspersiones de conidios del hongo en etapa de floración redujeron en 56 % la incidencia de moho blanco en frijol (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Huang <italic>et al.</italic>, 2000</xref>). Además, la incorporación del hongo micoparásito en la superficie del suelo antes de la siembra de soya redujo la severidad de la enfermedad en 68 % y el número de esclerocios hasta en 95.3 % (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Zeng <italic>et al</italic>., 2012a</xref>). La temperatura óptima para el crecimiento del micoparásito fué de 15 a 20 °C y un pH de 4.5 a 5.0 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Zeng <italic>et al</italic>., 2012b</xref>).</p>
				<p>Los estudios sobre la eficacia de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> en el control de <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> en campo son limitados (Knudsen <italic>et al</italic>., 1991; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Zeng <italic>et al</italic>., 2012</xref>a); sin embargo, en frijol <italic>Trichoderma asperellum</italic> a la dosis 2x1012 conidios por mL redujo el número de apotecios y severidad del moho blanco (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Geraldine <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>). <italic>T. hamatum</italic> redujo la incidencia de la enfermedad en 31 a 57 %, como resultado de la colonización de los esclerocios y la reducción en la producción de apotecios por el patógeno en repollo (<italic>Brassica oleracea</italic> var. capitata) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Jones <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>). En pepino (<italic>Cucumis sativus</italic>), <italic>T. harzianum</italic> T39 redujo la pudrición de tallos y frutos en invernadero (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Elad, 2000</xref>); mientras que la cepa T22 del mismo antagonista disminuyó el índice de severidad de enfermedad en 38.5 % (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Zeng <italic>et al.</italic>, 2012a</xref>).</p>
				<p>Con relación a bacterias antagonistas, <italic>Bacillus cereus</italic> y <italic>B. subtilis</italic> afectaron el crecimiento micelial de <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> y redujeron la incidencia de moho blanco en girasol (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Zazzerini, 1987</xref>). <italic>B. subtilis</italic> BY-2 controló la misma enfermedad en colza (<italic>Brassica napus</italic>) cuando se aplicó en la semilla y en etapa de floración; la incidencia en las parcelas tratadas con la bacteria varió de 8.9 a 11.8, mientras que en las parcelas sin tratamiento la incidencia varió de 18.1-22.9 % (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Hu <italic>et al</italic>., 2014</xref>). Con dos aplicaciones de <italic>B. cereus</italic> SC en intervalos semanales redujeron la pudrición de tallo de canola por <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> en 6.5 a 9.3 % mientras que en las parcelas testigo la incidencia fue de 20.0 a 29.8 % (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Kamal <italic>et al</italic>. 2015</xref>). También se demostró la eficacia del tratamiento de la semilla de frijol con <italic>Bacillus</italic> sp. B19, <italic>Bacillus</italic> sp. P12 y <italic>B. amyloliquefaciens</italic> B14 en el control del moho blanco (Sabaté <italic>et al</italic>., 2018).</p>
				<p>Estudios preliminares sobre el control biológico del agente causal del moho blanco del frijol en Sinaloa demostraron el efecto inhibitorio <italic>in vitro</italic> de <italic>Trichoderma harzianum</italic>, <italic>T. viride</italic> y <italic>T. atroviride</italic> endémicas del norte de Sinaloa, contra <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> obtenido de frijol (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Félix-López, 2016</xref>). Además, en un experimento en campo, a nivel semi-comercial, aplicaron cepas de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> a la semilla de frijol al momento de la siembra; una segunda aplicación se realizó en el sistema de riego por gravedad. Se observó una reducción de incidencia y severidad del moho blanco y un incremento de 40 % en el rendimiento con respecto al testigo regional, donde hicieron dos aplicaciones del fungicida fluazinam (Comunicación personal Ing. Fernando Urías; Asociación de Agricultores del Río Sinaloa Poniente, Guasave Sinaloa).</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title><bold>Supervivencia de <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> e incidencia de la enfermedad</bold></title>
				<p>Los esclerocios constituyen la estructura de supervivencia del patógeno durante el verano en Sinaloa pues tanto el frijol como la papa se desarrollan durante otoñoinvierno, contrario a otras zonas agrícolas donde sobreviven el invierno, donde los cultivos se desarrollan durante primavera-verano.</p>
				<p>Estudios previos indicaron que la germinación carpogénica de los apotecios puede ocurrir entre 5 y 25 °C, cuando el potencial mátrico de agua en el suelo de -0.03 a 0.07 MPa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Hao, <italic>et al</italic>., 2007</xref>). Observaciones de campo en el norte de Sinaloa indican que dichas temperaturas a 2.5 cm de profundidad del suelo ocurren a partir de la primera semana de diciembre (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 4</xref>). Estas condiciones coinciden con la etapa de floración tanto de frijol como de papa; además, el 100 % de la superficie del suelo se cubre por el follaje de las plantas, lo que reduce la evaporación, principalmente en papa cuyas variedades crecen de manera exuberante y se irrigan por aspersión, lo que origina periodos con follaje mojado hasta por 17 horas diarias en el tercio basal de las planta y humedad permanente en la superficie de suelo cercana a la saturación. Estas variables climáticas y la fenología del cultivo, favorecen la formación de apotecios y la subsecuente liberación de ascosporas, las que penetran e infectan flores senescentes que se desprenden y caen sobre las hojas y tallos de las plantas donde se observan los síntomas iniciales de la enfermedad. También, con frecuencia se observan síntomas y signos de la enfermedad en la base del tallo en plantas de frijol o en tallos de papa sobre el suelo en el fondo del surco; en estos casos la infección primaria podría ocurrir a partir de la germinación directa de los esclerocios (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Hossain <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f4">
						<label>Figura 4</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Períodos diarios con temperatura óptima del suelo (2.5 cm de profundidad) para la germinación de esclerocios de <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> y períodos con humedad relativa &gt; 90 % en el norte de Sinaloa del 20 de octubre al 03 de diciembre de 2002.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-03-RMEXFIT24046-gf4.gif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Aun cuando se ha reportado que la exposición de esclerocios a sequías y temperaturas de30°C no favorecen la producción de apotecios por los esclerocios; éstos permanecen viables y germinan mediante la formación de micelio (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Abawi y Grogan; 1979</xref>). Estas condiciones climáticas ocurren en lotes de papa que no se siembran en el ciclo primavera-verano en Sinaloa y se someten a laboreo para sembrarse en el ciclo agrícola otoño-invierno. En este caso los esclerocios a 5 cm de profundidad en el suelo se exponen a 40 °C y a bajos niveles de humedad (15 bares) (Sifuentes-Ibarra <italic>et al</italic>., 2021) en lotes baldíos durante el verano; aunque 50</p>
				<p>% de los lotes se siembran con sorgo, donde la temperatura podría ser inferior a los 40 °C.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Manejo del moho blanco del frijol y papa en Sinaloa</title>
				<p>En Sinaloa, en años recientes se diseñó un sistema en el que la primera aplicación preventiva de fungicidas sintéticos en frijol y papa se recomienda cuando la temperatura del suelo a 2.5 cm de profundidad varía de 13 a 19 °C. Estas condiciones se presentan durante la primera semana de diciembre en el municipio de Ahome, lo que coincide con el incremento de períodos con humedad relativa ≥ 90</p>
				<p>% (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 4</xref>). En el caso de frijol, estas condiciones se dan cuando se ha aplicado el primer riego de auxilio y el cultivo cubre el 100 % de la superficie del suelo y se ha iniciado la floración con la acumulación de 630 unidades calor en la variedad Noroeste. La primera aplicación de fungicida debe realizarse, a los siete días después de que se registran entre 13 a 19 °C, lo que favorece la formación de apotecios y liberación de ascosporas.</p>
				<p>Estos criterios también se aplican para el manejo del moho blanco en papa, donde las condiciones de humedad tanto en el follaje como en el suelo son favorables para la formación de apotecios, la liberación de ascosporas y el progreso de la enfermedad debido al uso de sistemas de riego por aspersión. Al igual que en frijol, en papa, las aplicaciones preventivas de fungicidas se inician a los siete días, después de que ocurra en el suelo a 2.5 cm de profundidad, una variación de 13 a 19</p>
				<p>°C y el cultivo presenta las primeras inflorescencias; en esta etapa el suelo se cubre totalmente por el follaje, lo que reduce la evaporación de la humedad suministrada por los sistemas de riego. Los fungicidas; carbendazim, benomilo, metil-tiofanato</p>
				<p>y fluazinam se utilizan para el control de la enfermedad cuando se dan estas condiciones (Rodríguez-Cota <italic>et al.</italic>, 2022). Con base en este sistema de manejo de la enfermedad, en frijol se recomiendan dos aplicaciones durante el ciclo del cultivo y en papa se recomiendan hasta tres aplicaciones con intervalos de siete días, principalmente en variedades donde el período de floración es prolongado. Es frecuente la presencia de flores senescentes infectadas a partir de ascosporas, que caen sobre las plantas donde se presentan los síntomas iniciales de la enfermedad. Debido a los niveles de humedad en el suelo también ocurre daño en tallos y hojas senescentes con la consecuente producción de esclerocios que sobreviven hasta por cinco años (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Ben-Yephet <italic>et al</italic>., 1993</xref>). En Sinaloa los suelos destinados a monocultivos de papa, muestran incrementos de esclerocios, los que ciclo tras ciclo producen el inóculo primario constituido por las ascosporas.</p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Líneas futuras de investigación</title>
			<p>Aun cuando <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> ataca a cultivos económicamente importantes en Sinaloa, no se han desarrollado estudios sobre su ecología. Estudios sobre el tema, se han realizado principalmente en Estados Unidos de Norteamérica, donde el frijol y la papa se cultivan durante primavera y verano, lo que contrasta con Sinaloa donde lo mismos cultivos se desarrollan durante el ciclo otoño-invierno. Lo anterior indica áreas potenciales de investigación relacionadas con los ciclos y regiones de siembra donde la temperatura y diferentes regímenes de humedad afectan los esclerocios a diferentes profundidades, así como la actividad de microorganismos antagónicos bajo esas condiciones.</p>
			<p>En lo relativo al control del moho blanco, tradicionalmente se ha recurrido al uso de fungicidas. Sin embargo, estas moléculas inducen resistencia en el agente causal y contaminan el ambiente. En la búsqueda de estrategias amigables con el ambiente para el control de la enfermedad, se debería determinar la efectividad biológica de especies nativas de <italic>Trichoderma</italic>. Este enfoque es crucial en la identificación de especies del hongo en la región, la determinación de su efectividad <italic>in vitro,</italic> las formas de acción del antagonista contra el patógeno bajo estas condiciones como son: micoparasitismo, antibiosis, genes inductores de la resistencia, desactivación de enzimas del patógeno, entre otras. Entre mayor número de modos de acción de especies de <italic>Trichoderma</italic>, más eficiente y duradero será el control sobre el patógeno, aspectos que no poseen los fungicidas de síntesis química (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Infante <italic>et al.,</italic> 2000</xref>). Otro punto para atender, es investigar la efectividad biológica de las especies de <italic>Trichoderma in planta</italic> en condiciones de invernadero y campo donde se incluya la resistencia inducida (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Bisen <italic>et al.,</italic> 2016</xref>). En campo se debe determinar el efecto de las aplicaciones al tubérculo semilla al momento de la siembra y aplicaciones subsiguientes mediante el sistema de riego por aspersión en cada uno de los riegos durante el crecimiento del cultivo.</p>
			<p>La reducción en la viabilidad de los esclerocios de especies de <italic>Sclerotinia</italic> probablemente se debe a la acción de microorganismos benéficos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">Williams y Western, 1965</xref>). De ahí la importancia de ensayar la eficacia de especies de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> aplicadas al momento de la cosecha tanto de frijol como de papa. Así, cuando los terrenos se barbechen, los esclerocios estarían inoculados con especies antagónicas al hongo del moho blanco. También habría que determinar la viabilidad de los esclerocios a diferentes profundidades en el suelo, así como el efecto de la temperatura y humedad en el suelo durante todos los meses del año; paralelamente determinar los niveles de incidencia de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> en los mismos y capacidad para germinar directamente y mediante la producción de apotecios. Es evidente el amplio estudio de agentes de control biológico, donde se ha acotado investigaciones en condiciones <italic>in vitro</italic> a hasta invernadero, pero poco se ha encauzado a investigaciones en campo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Córdova-Albores <italic>et al.,</italic> 2021</xref>) y menos a investigación referente a este hongo y cultivos en el noroeste de México.</p>
			<p>La efectividad del hongo <italic>Coniothyrium minitans</italic> contra el moho blanco se ha</p>
			<p>demostrado en otras partes del mundo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Huang y Hoes, 1980</xref>; McQuilk <italic>et al</italic>., 1995; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Zeng <italic>et al</italic>., 2012</xref>b); la eficacia de aplicaciones preventivas contra la germinación de ascosporas de <italic>S</italic>. <italic>sclerotiorum</italic> sobre las inflorescencias de frijol y papa se debería determinar en Sinaloa, pues esta etapa fenológica en ambos cultivos ocurre durante el invierno, cuando hay una variación de 5 a 25 °C, lo cual favorece la liberación de ascosporas por el patógeno y la potencial colonización de las mismas por el hongo antagónico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Clarkson <italic>et al.,</italic> 2003</xref> ). Sin embargo, la aplicación de</p>
			<p><italic>C. minitans</italic>, sobre los residuos de cosecha con esclerocios del patógeno quizá no sea eficaz para reducir la viabilidad de los mismos ya que en verano en Sinaloa se alcanzan hasta 40 °C en la superficie del suelo, lo que contrasta con otras zonas productoras donde el micoparásito se aplica sobre los residuos de cosecha al inicio de otoño donde ocurren temperaturas de alrededor de 20 °C (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Zeng <italic>et al</italic>., 2012</xref>b).</p>
			<p>En el caso de bacterias antagónicas, se encontró que <italic>Bacillus cereus</italic> y <italic>B. subtilis</italic> ejercieron control contra la pudrición del tallo del girasol causado por <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Zazzerinim, 1987</xref>). Un efecto similar se observó cuando <italic>B</italic>. <italic>subtilis</italic> BY-2 se aplicó en tratamiento de semilla o aspersión en la etapa de floración contra la misma enfermedad en colza (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Hu <italic>et al</italic>., 2014</xref>). Estos hallazgos conducen hacia la búsqueda de este tipo de bacterias en Sinaloa y, la determinación de su eficacia en el control del moho blanco en frijol y papa.</p>
			<p>Para complementar el esquema de manejo del moho blanco se deberían realizar estudios sobre la fenología de las variedades de frijol y de papa en los que se determine la acumulación de unidades calor necesarias para el inicio de floración, pues cuando esta etapa fenológica coincide con condiciones ambientales favorables para la producción de ascosporas, éstas infectan las flores fecundadas y senescentes, las cuales se desprenden y caen sobre las plantas; a partir de ahí se inician los primeros síntomas de la enfermedad. Además, tanto en frijol como en papa, el período de floración es variable, lo que sin duda influye en la presencia de sustrato para la infección por las ascosporas en el desarrollo de la enfermedad. Sin duda, el copilar información sobre este tema contribuirá a una mayor eficacia de los fungicidas y agentes de biocontrol en el manejo de la enfermedad.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusiones</title>
			<p>El moho blanco del frijol y la papa constituye una de las enfermedades importantes de estos cultivos en Sinaloa. Aun cuando se han realizado estudios sobre la ecología del agente causal y la epidemiología de la enfermedad en otras partes del mundo, en esta región los estudios sobre estos temas son incipientes. En este sentido, la implementación de un sistema de manejo que integra la temperatura del suelo y la fenología del cultivo ha permitido el uso eficiente de fungicidas en el control de la enfermedad; sin embargo, se abren nuevas líneas de investigación relativas a la fenología de variedades de frijol y de papa, donde se determinen las unidades calor requeridas para el inicio de la etapa de floración en las variedades comerciales; importante en el progreso de epidemias de moho blanco. Además, en el esquema de control se debe investigar la efectividad biológica de especies nativas o locales de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> en el manejo de la enfermedad <italic>in vitro</italic> hasta experimentación en parcelas semicomerciales y la subsiguiente transferencia en lotes comerciales.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
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	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="en">
		<front-stub>
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				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
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			<title-group>
				<article-title><italic>Sclerotinia sclerotiorum</italic> on bean and potato in Sinaloa: Etiology, epidemiology and alternatives for management</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<abstract>
				<title>ABSTRACT</title>
				<p> </p>
				<p>White mold (<italic>Sclerotinia sclerotiorum</italic>) is the main disease of bean and potato in Sinaloa. In the present review, the symptoms and signs of the disease as well as cultural and morphological characteristics of the teleomorph of the pathogen, its ecology and the epidemiology of the disease are addressed. The implementation of a prediction system which includes the carpogenic germination of the sclerotia and the phenology of both bean and potato for the management of the disease is described. This system considers soil temperature ranging from 13 to 19 °C a at depth of 2.5 cm in the soil and the flowering stage in both bean and potato to do the first spray application of synthetic fungicide to prevent the disease. <italic>In vitro</italic> studies indicated that <italic>Trichoderma harzianum</italic>, <italic>T. viride</italic> and <italic>T. atroviride</italic> reduced mycelial growth rate of <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic>. The same antagonistic species exerted control of white mold under field conditions, where an increment of 40% of yield was observed in the treated plots, with respect to those treated with fungicide fluazinam. Future lines of research focusing on the ecology of the pathogen and management of the disease including the antagonistic fungi in the prediction system are suggested.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Key words:</title>
				<kwd>Phaselus vulgaris</kwd>
				<kwd>Solanum tuberosum</kwd>
				<kwd>apothecia</kwd>
				<kwd>Trichoderma.</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introduction</title>
				<p>In Mexico, bean (<italic>Phaseolus vulgaris</italic>) and potato (<italic>Solanum tuberosum</italic>) crops covered an area of 1,472,462 and 60,102 ha in 2022, respectively. Bean production reached 965,371 t with a value of 16,984 million pesos, while potato production yielded 1,878,976 t valued at 16,173 million pesos (SIAP, 2022). In Sinaloa, during the same year, 58,925 ha of beans were planted, yielding 165,475 t with a production value of 3,271 million pesos. For potatoes, 11,975 ha were planted, producing 403,923 t valued at 3,363 million pesos. Fungal diseases stand out as a limiting factor for both crops in Sinaloa. For instance, beans are affected by root rots (<italic>Fusarium</italic> spp., <italic>Rhizoctonia solani</italic>, <italic>Pythium</italic> spp., <italic>Macrophomina phaseolina</italic>, and <italic>Sclerotium rolfsii</italic>), white mold (<italic>Sclerotinia sclerotiorum</italic>), rust (<italic>Uromyces appendiculatus</italic> var. <italic>appendiculatus</italic>) (Rodríguez-Cota <italic>et al.</italic>, 2022), and powdery mildew (<italic>Erysiphe diffusa</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Félix-Gastélum <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>). Regarding bacterial diseases, common blight (<italic>Xanthomonas axonopodis</italic> pv. <italic>phaseoli</italic>) (RodríguezCota <italic>et al.</italic>, 2022) and halo blight (<italic>Pseudomonas syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">FélixGastélum <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>) are prominent.</p>
				<p><italic>Sclerotinia sclerotiorum</italic> is a phytopathogen that affects 408 species belonging to 278 genera and 75 families. Most susceptible species are in the subclass Dicotyledonae of angiosperms, although it can also attack several members of the subclass Monocotyledonae (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Boland and Hall, 1994</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Islam <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Jahan <italic>et al.</italic>, 2022</xref>). It can also occur as an endophyte in cereals such as rice (<italic>Oryza sativa</italic>), wheat (<italic>Triticum aestivum</italic>), maize (<italic>Zea mays</italic>), barley (<italic>Hordeum vulgare</italic>), and oat (<italic>Avena sativa</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Tian <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>). Annual losses due to white mold in the United States exceed $200 million (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Bolton <italic>et al.</italic>, 2006</xref>). In Sinaloa, the disease has been reported in eggplant (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Cebreros-Sánchez and Sánchez-Castro, 1998</xref>) and beans (Rodríguez-Cota <italic>et al.</italic>, 2022), with losses of 50%, while in potatoes they can reach 30%. Despite this, no applied research has been conducted on disease management. This review describes white mold symptoms in beans and potatoes in northern Sinaloa, the morphological characteristics of <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> teleomorph, its ecology, and disease epidemiology, as well as management strategies used in other parts of the world. It also outlines the current situation of disease management in Sinaloa and future research directions needed for efficient control of white mold in beans and potatoes in this region.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Symptoms and signs of the disease</title>
					<p>Bean and potato plants infected by <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> display typical white, cottonlike mycelium on the infected tissue surface. The mycelium produces cellulases and pectinases, which are involved in the infection process and cause plant tissue rot (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Fernando <italic>et al.</italic>, 2004</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Bolton <italic>et al.</italic>, 2006</xref>). It also produces oxalic acid, which has toxic effects on host tissue (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Hegedus and Rimmer, 2005</xref>). In the field, wilted plants show watery lesions on stems, leaves, and pods. Infected tissue is covered with whitish mycelium. In advanced stages, mycelial aggregations occur, which mature and transform into black sclerotia of various shapes, ranging from 0.5 to 1.7 cm. These are found mainly on the whitish tissue surface, although they can also be found inside stems (Hooker, 1981).</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title><bold>Morphological characteristics of the causal agent (<italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic>) of white mold in Sinaloa</bold></title>
					<p>White mold on beans and potatoes occurs year after year in Sinaloa. Colonies of <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> isolated on potato dextrose agar (PDA) are white, cotton-like, regular, with slightly elevated growth. Sclerotia form a double ring in the Petri dish, both in the center and at the edge near the dish wall (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 1</xref>A). Although fungal colonies from potatoes were similar to those from beans, sclerotia were produced sporadically on PDA (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 1</xref>C). Several species of <italic>Sclerotinia</italic> have been reported as phytopathogens, but in this region, only <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> has been identified as the causal agent (Mora-Romero <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016). The fungus survives the summer through sclerotia, which measure 0.5 to 1.7 cm in length when produced on beans (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 1</xref>B) and 0.3 to 1.0 cm when produced on potatoes (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 1</xref>D), and produce one to several light brown apothecia 0.5 to 0.8 cm in diameter (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 3</xref>D). Apothecia are more common in potato fields, likely due to high humidity levels generated by sprinkler irrigation systems. The hymenium of the apothecia has asci measuring 85.0 to 160.0 µm by 3.0 to 5.5 µm (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 3</xref>B) and hyaline paraphyses; the ascospores are also hyaline, unicellular, ovoid to elliptical, and measure 5 to 7.0 µm (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 3</xref>C).</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f5">
							<label>Figure 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Mycelial growth and sclerotia of <italic>Sclerotinia sclerotiorum</italic>. A) Fungal growth obtained from bean with sclerotia forming a double circle on PDA in a Petri dish; B) Light brown sclerotia produced on bean plants in the field; C) Fungal growth obtained from potato plant with scattered sclerotia on PDA in a Petri dish; D) Black sclerotia produced on potato plants in the field.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-03-RMEXFIT24046-gf5.gif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>Field observations in Sinaloa indicate that in beans, the disease frequently initiates at the base of plant stems (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 2</xref>A), suggesting that the initial infection likely occurs through direct germination of sclerotia (myceliogenic). From there, the symptom progresses to stems, leaflets, and pods (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 2</xref>B and 2C) where cottony, whitish mycelium forms, causing soft rot and initiating sclerotia formation (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 2</xref>D). This observation agrees with previous studies where sclerotia germinate to produce mycelium that infects plants (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Abawi and Grogan, 1979</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Lane <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>). In potatoes, sclerotia have been observed inside stems (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 3</xref>A), as well as fungal apothecia on the soil surface (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 3</xref>D) with asci (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 3</xref>B) containing eight ascospores (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 3</xref>C). Infected inflorescences falling onto leaves have also been observed, from which initial disease symptoms originate (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 3</xref>E) and progress to invade the rest of the plant parts (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 3</xref>F). Stems on the ground showing disease symptoms and signs have also been observed (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 3</xref>G), where</p>
					<p>infection may originate from direct germination of sclerotia.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title><bold>Ecology of <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic>
</bold></title>
					<p><italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> is a soil-dwelling fungus that survives through sclerotia (SousaMelo <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019). The outer layer of sclerotia consists of melanin-containing cells (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Butler <italic>et al.</italic> 2009</xref>), protecting the fungus from ultraviolet light, toxic metals, lytic enzymes, and antagonistic microorganisms (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Butler and Day, 1998</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Thomma, 2003</xref>). In some bean-cultivated soils, averages of 0.6 to 6.2 sclerotia per kg of soil have been found (Schwartz and Steadman, 1977). Soil temperature, pH, and moisture seem to have a limited effect on sclerotia survival, but the biological component has a greater impact on their survival in soil (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Adams and Ayers, 1979</xref>). Sclerotia quantity in soil can increase in two ways: a) secondary sclerotia production and b) production on the host (Adams and Ayers, 1979).</p>
					<p>The fungus’s wide host range (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Toby <italic>et al.</italic>, 2023</xref>) and susceptible monocultures lead to increased sclerotia populations in soil. Sclerotia survival varies with depth; studies showed that sclerotia placed deeper than 10 to 30 cm remained viable longer than those at 5 cm (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Cosic <italic>et al.</italic>, 2012</xref>). It was also reported that <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> sclerotia viability at 0, 5, and 10 cm decreased with depth (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Duncan <italic>et al.</italic> 2006</xref>). Other studies indicated that <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> sclerotia remain viable in soil for eight to 10 years (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Coley-Simth and Cooke, 1971</xref>). It was demonstrated that 3.2 sclerotia per m² can cause 95% incidence in kidney beans under field conditions (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Suzui and Kobayashi, 1972</xref>). However, 0.2 sclerotia per kg of soil could cause moderately severe white mold levels in beans (Schwartz and Steadman, 1977). Ascospores constitute the primary inoculum source, germinating and colonizing senescent tissue, from which the fungus invades different plant parts (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Hossain <italic>et al.</italic>, 2023</xref>).</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f6">
							<label>Figure 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Symptoms and signs of white mold in beans. A). Disease symptoms initiating at the base of the plant stem; B). Progression of symptoms and signs on stems; C). Symptoms and signs on pods; D). Whitish stems invaded by <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> with mycelial aggregation and abundant sclerotia.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-03-RMEXFIT24046-gf6.gif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f7">
							<label>Figure 3</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Teleomorph structures of <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic>, symptoms and signs of white mold. A). Potato stem with sclerotia inside; B). Fragment of apothecial hymenium with asci, ascospores, and paraphyses; C). Ascus containing eight ascospores; D). Apothecia produced by sclerotia on soil surface; E). Initial symptom of white mold on potato leaf originating from an infected inflorescence; F). Soft rot of leaves and presence of mycelium on infected tissue; G). Stem on soil colonized by the fungus with abundant whitish mycelium.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-03-RMEXFIT24046-gf7.gif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p><italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> spreads from one field to another or between regions in several ways: a) as mycelium attached to seed surfaces, b) farming equipment (ZubietaCoronado, 2021), animals, or humans (Starr <italic>et al.</italic>, 1953). About 2% of sclerotia ingested by sheep remain viable after passing through their digestive system, suggesting that this type of livestock and other animals can spread sclerotia to pathogen-free areas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Brown, 1937</xref>). Irrigation water is another means of sclerotia dissemination, where they remain viable for 10 to 21 days (Steadman <italic>et al.</italic>, 1975). However, long-distance spread occurs through mycelium-infected seeds in sunflower (<italic>Helianthus annuus</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Young and Morris, 1927</xref>), cabbage (<italic>Brassica oleracea</italic> var. <italic>capitata</italic>), cauliflower (<italic>Brassica oleracea</italic> var. <italic>botrytis</italic>), kale (<italic>Brassica oleracea</italic> var. <italic>sabellica</italic>) (Neergaard, 1958), clover (<italic>Trifolium</italic> sp.) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Dillon-Weston <italic>et al.</italic>, 1946</xref>), beans (Starr <italic>et al.</italic>, 1953), and peanuts (<italic>Arachis hypogaea</italic>) (Porter and Beute, 1974). Air as an element for ascospore dissemination has also been considered in recent years (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Leyronas, 2019</xref>; Reich <italic>et al.</italic>, 2024).</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Epidemiology of white mold in beans and potatoes</title>
					<p>White mold epidemics in beans and potatoes initiate from ascospores produced in apothecia originating from sclerotia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Abawi and Grogan, 1979</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Cook <italic>et al.</italic>, 1975</xref>; Schwartz and Steadman, 1978; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Clarkson, <italic>et al.</italic>, 2003</xref>). In Sinaloa, damage has been observed on potato stems at the furrow bottom; bean plants also show damage at the stem base, occurring through direct sclerotia germination. Thus, apothecia production by sclerotia in beans is essential for epidemic development (Abawi and Grogan, 1979). In contrast, in some Canadian regions, sclerotia can produce mycelium directly to cause infection below soil level in sunflowers, although infection can also occur through ascospores from apothecia (Hung and Hoes, 1980). Only apothecia on the soil surface at 2.0-3.0 cm depth release ascospores, as apothecial stipes do not exceed 3.0 cm in length, and those at greater depths do not emerge above the soil surface and do not release ascospores into the air, as light intensity is insufficient for their formation (Sun and Yang, 2000). An epidemic’s onset does not necessarily occur from ascospores produced in a particular field but can come from neighboring fields, including some weeds like dandelion (<italic>Taraxacum officinale</italic>) and clover (<italic>Trifolium</italic> spp.) (Cooke <italic>et al.</italic>, 1975). The first apothecia appear when the crop covers 100% of the soil surface and evaporation decreases (Abawi and Grogan, 1979).</p>
					<p>Exposure of sclerotia to extreme drought and high temperatures has been observed to have a detrimental effect on apothecia production by sclerotia; however, they remain viable for three years at a depth of 20 to 25 cm in the soil (Peltier <italic>et al.</italic>, 2012). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Hao <italic>et al.</italic> (2007</xref>) demonstrated that carpogenic germination of sclerotia occurred between 15 and 20°C, when soil water matric potential was -0.03 to 0.07 MPa; but no apothecia were produced at temperatures above 26°C (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Clarkson <italic>et al.</italic>, 2003</xref>). Apothecia produce ascospores whose dispersal from the point of origin can vary from 25 cm (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Suzui and Kobayashi, 1972</xref>) to several km (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Leyronas <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>), and the optimal temperature for their germination on bean flowers with free moisture is 21°C (Shahovesi and del Río-Mendoza, 2020). It has also been established that ascospores are released at 15°C in continuous light and darkness and relative humidity regimes of 90 to 95% and 65 to 75% with the release of 7.6 x 10⁵ ascospores per apothecium in 20 days. The release of <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> ascospores in the field has been observed at midday (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Harthill, 1976</xref>; Raynal, 1990), which could be related more to temperature than to daylight (Clarkson <italic>et al.</italic>, 2003).</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Management of white mold</title>
					<p>White mold management has involved solarization (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Ferraz, 2003</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Supriya <italic>et al.</italic>, 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Juliatti <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>), crop rotation, and chemical control (Kurozawa and Pavan, 1997). Due to low levels of host resistance to the pathogen, a wide range of fungicides has been used to control the disease. For example, in the United States, Canada, Australia, China, and Europe, boscalid, fluazinam, fluxapyroxad, pyraclostrobin, penthiopyrad, picoxystrobin, prothioconazole, trifloxystrobin, tetraconazole, and thiophanate-methyl are used (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Matheron and Porchas, 2004</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Bradley <italic>et al.</italic>, 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Wang <italic>et al.</italic>, 2015</xref>). The biological effectiveness of procymidone and fluazinam was demonstrated in controlling white mold in soybeans when applied at the beginning of flowering and 15 days after flowering began (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Hideki-Sumida <italic>et al.</italic>, 2015</xref>). In Sinaloa, carbendazim, benomyl, methyl thiophanate, and fluazinam are used to control the disease in beans and potatoes (Rodríguez-Cota <italic>et al.</italic>, 2022; Personal communication, Ing. Joel González; Pasa, SA de CV, Los Mochis, Sinaloa), achieving 85-90% control efficacy in both crops when applied preventively. Fungicides boscalid+pyraclostrobin, carbendazim, fluazinam, fludioxonil+cyprodinil, and prochloraz showed <italic>in vitro</italic> effectiveness in inhibiting mycelial growth of <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic>, as did biorational products: salicylic acid, hydrogen peroxide, and grapefruit seed extract (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Ayala-Armenta <italic>et al.</italic>, 2015</xref>). There is no field evidence on the biological effectiveness of these substances except for carbendazim and fluazinam (Rodríguez-Cota <italic>et al.</italic>, 2022).</p>
					<p>Regarding biological control, the activity of antagonistic agents is affected by abiotic and biotic factors such as temperature, soil type and moisture, pH, pesticides, organic matter, soil microorganisms, plant species, among others, leading to these agents being less effective than synthetic chemical fungicides (Smolińska and Kowalska, 2018).</p>
					<p>Several fungal species have shown biological control with mycoparasitic activity against <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic>, with <italic>Coniothyrium minitans</italic> standing out (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Huang and Hoes, 1976</xref>; McQuilken <italic>et al.</italic>, 1995; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Zeng <italic>et al.</italic>, 2012</xref>b; Patel <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020). Spraying fungal conidia during flowering reduced white mold incidence in beans by 56% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Huang <italic>et al.</italic>, 2000</xref>). Additionally, incorporating the mycoparasite on the soil surface before soybean planting reduced disease severity by 68% and the number of sclerotia by up to 95.3% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Zeng <italic>et al.</italic>, 2012a</xref>). The optimal temperature for mycoparasite growth was 15 to 20°C and a pH of 4.5 to 5.0 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Zeng <italic>et al.</italic>, 2012b</xref>).</p>
					<p>Preliminary studies on biological control of the causal agent of bean white mold in Sinaloa demonstrated the <italic>in vitro</italic> inhibitory effect of endemic <italic>Trichoderma harzianum</italic>, <italic>T. viride</italic>, and <italic>T. atroviride</italic> from northern Sinaloa against <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> obtained from beans (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Félix-López, 2016</xref>). Additionally, in a semi-commercial field experiment, <italic>Trichoderma</italic> strains were applied to bean seeds at planting; a second application was made in the furrow irrigation system. A reduction in white mold incidence and severity was observed, along with a 40% yield increase compared to the regional control, where two applications of the fungicide fluazinam were made (Personal communication Ing. Fernando Urías; Asociación de Agricultores del Río Sinaloa Poniente, Guasave Sinaloa).</p>
					<p>Studies on the efficacy of <italic>Trichoderma</italic> in controlling <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> in the field are limited (Knudsen <italic>et al.</italic>, 1991; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Zeng <italic>et al.</italic>, 2012</xref>a); however, in beans, <italic>Trichoderma asperellum</italic> at a dose of 2x10¹² conidia per mL reduced the number of apothecia and white mold severity (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Geraldine <italic>et al.</italic>, 2013</xref>). <italic>T. hamatum</italic> reduced disease incidence by 31 to 57%, resulting from sclerotia colonization and reduced apothecia production by the pathogen in cabbage (<italic>Brassica oleracea</italic> var. <italic>capitata</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Jones <italic>et al.</italic>, 2015</xref>). In cucumber (<italic>Cucumis sativus</italic>), <italic>T. harzianum</italic> T39 reduced stem and fruit rot in greenhouses (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Elad, 2000</xref>); while the T22 strain of the same antagonist decreased the disease severity index by 38.5% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Zeng <italic>et al.</italic>, 2012a</xref>).</p>
					<p>Regarding antagonistic bacteria, <italic>Bacillus cereus</italic> and <italic>B. subtilis</italic> affected <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> mycelial growth and reduced white mold incidence in sunflower (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Zazzerini, 1987</xref>). <italic>B. subtilis</italic> BY-2 controlled the same disease in rapeseed (<italic>Brassica napus</italic>) when applied to seeds and during flowering; incidence in bacteria-treated plots ranged from 8.9 to 11.8%, while in untreated plots, it ranged from 18.1-22.9% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Hu <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014</xref>). Two weekly applications of <italic>B. cereus</italic> SC reduced canola stem rot by <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> by 6.5 to 9.3%, while control plots had 20.0 to 29.8% incidence (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Kamal <italic>et al.</italic> 2015</xref>). The efficacy of bean seed treatment with <italic>Bacillus</italic> sp. B19, <italic>Bacillus</italic> sp. P12, and <italic>B. amyloliquefaciens</italic> B14 in controlling white mold was also demonstrated (Sabaté <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018).</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title><bold>Survival of <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> and disease incidence</bold></title>
					<p>Sclerotia constitute the pathogen’s survival structure during summer in Sinaloa, as both beans and potatoes develop during autumn-winter, contrary to other agricultural areas where they survive the winter and crops develop during springsummer.Previous studies indicated that carpogenic germination of apothecia can occur between 5 and 25°C, when soil water matric potential is -0.03 to 0.07 MPa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Hao, <italic>et al.</italic>, 2007</xref>). Field observations in northern Sinaloa indicate that these temperatures at 2.5 cm soil depth occur from the first week of December (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figure 4</xref>). These conditions coincide with the flowering stage of both beans and potatoes; additionally, 100% of the soil surface is covered by plant foliage, reducing evaporation, mainly in potatoes whose varieties grow exuberantly and are irrigated</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f8">
							<label>Figure 4</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Daily periods with optimal soil temperature (2.5 cm depth) for germination of <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> sclerotia and periods with relative humidity <bold>&gt;</bold> 90% in northern Sinaloa from October 20 to December 03, 2002.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-03-RMEXFIT24046-gf8.gif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>by sprinklers, resulting in leaf wetness periods up to 17 hours daily in the lower part of the canopy of the plants and permanent moisture on the soil surface near saturation. These climatic variables and crop phenology favor apothecia formation and subsequent ascospore release, which penetrate and infect senescent flowers that detach and fall onto plant leaves and stems where initial disease symptoms are observed. Symptoms and signs of the disease are also frequently observed at the stem base in bean plants or on potato stems on the soil at the furrow bottom; in these cases, primary infection could occur from direct sclerotia germination (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Hossain <italic>et al.</italic>, 2023</xref>).</p>
					<p>Although it has been reported that exposure of sclerotia to drought and temperatures of 30°C does not favor apothecia production by sclerotia, they remain viable and germinate through mycelium formation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Abawi and Grogan; 1979</xref>). These climatic conditions occur in potato fields that are not planted in the springsummer cycle in Sinaloa and are subjected to tillage for planting in the autumnwinter agricultural cycle. In this case, sclerotia at 5 cm soil depth are exposed to 40°C and low moisture levels (15 bars) (Sifuentes-Ibarra <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021) in fallow fields during summer; although 50% of the fields are planted with sorghum, where the temperature could be lower than 40°C.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Management of white mold in beans and potatoes in Sinaloa</title>
					<p>In Sinaloa, a system was recently implemented where the first preventive application of synthetic fungicides in bean and potato fields is recommended when soil temperature at 2.5 cm depth varies from 13 to 19°C. These conditions occur during the first week of December in Ahome municipality, coinciding with increased periods of relative humidity ≥ 90% (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figure 4</xref>). For beans, these conditions occur when the first supplementary irrigation has been applied, the crop covers 100% of the soil surface, and flowering has begun with the accumulation of 630 heat units in the Noroeste variety. The first fungicide application should be made seven days after temperatures of 13 to 19°C are recorded, which favors apothecia formation and ascospore release.</p>
					<p>These criteria also apply to white mold management in potatoes, where moisture conditions in both foliage and soil are favorable for apothecia formation, ascospore release, and disease progression due to sprinkler irrigation systems. As in beans, preventive fungicide applications in potatoes begin seven days after soil temperature at 2.5 cm depth varies from 13 to 19°C and the crop presents the first inflorescences; at this stage, the soil is completely covered by foliage, reducing evaporation of moisture supplied by irrigation systems. Fungicides carbendazim, benomyl, methyl thiophanate, and fluazinam are used for disease control under these conditions (Rodríguez-Cota <italic>et al.</italic>, 2022). Based on this disease management system, two applications are recommended for beans during the crop cycle, and up to three applications at seven-day intervals are recommended for potatoes, mainly in varieties with prolonged flowering periods. Infected senescent flowers infected by ascospores frequently fall onto plants where initial disease symptoms appear. Due to soil moisture levels, damage also occurs on stems and senescent leaves with subsequent production of sclerotia that survive up to five years (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Ben-Yephet <italic>et al.</italic>, 1993</xref>). In Sinaloa, soils used for potato monocultures show increased populations of sclerotia, which produce primary inoculum consisting of ascospores cycle after cycle.</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Future lines of research</title>
				<p>Although <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> attacks economically important crops in Sinaloa, studies on its ecology have not been developed there. Research on this topic has been conducted mainly in the United States, where beans and potatoes are cultivated during spring and summer, contrasting with Sinaloa where these crops are grown during the autumn-winter cycle. This indicates potential research areas related to planting cycles and regions where temperature and different moisture regimes affect sclerotia at various depths, as well as the activity of antagonistic microorganisms under these conditions.</p>
				<p>Regarding white mold control, fungicides have traditionally been used. However, these molecules induce resistance in the causal agent and contaminate the environment. In the search for environmentally friendly strategies to control the disease, the biological effectiveness of native <italic>Trichoderma</italic> species should be determined. This approach is crucial for identifying fungal species in the region, determining their <italic>in vitro</italic> effectiveness, and understanding the antagonist’s modes of action against the pathogen under these conditions, such as mycoparasitism, antibiosis, resistance-inducing genes, and pathogen enzyme deactivation. The greater the number of modes of action of <italic>Trichoderma</italic> species, the more efficient and long-lasting the control over the pathogen will be, aspects that synthetic chemical fungicides do not possess (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Infante <italic>et al.</italic>, 2000</xref>).</p>
				<p>Another point to address is investigating the biological effectiveness of <italic>Trichoderma</italic> species in planta under greenhouse and field conditions, including induced resistance (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Bisen <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>). In the field, the effect of applications to seed tubers at planting time and subsequent applications through the sprinkler irrigation system during each irrigation throughout crop growth should be determined.</p>
				<p>The reduction in sclerotia viability of <italic>Sclerotinia</italic> species is likely due to the action of beneficial microorganisms (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">Williams and Western, 1965</xref>). Hence the importance of testing the efficacy of <italic>Trichoderma</italic> species applied at harvest time for both beans and potatoes. Thus, when fields are tilled, the sclerotia inoculated with antagonistic species to the white mold fungus would by incorporated to the soil. It would also be necessary to determine sclerotia viability at different soil depths, as well as the effect of soil temperature and moisture throughout the year; simultaneously determining <italic>Trichoderma</italic> incidence levels on the <italic>sclerotia</italic> and their capacity to germinate directly and through apothecial production. The extensive study of biological control agents is evident, with research limited to <italic>in vitro</italic> and greenhouse conditions, but little has been directed towards field conditios (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Córdova-Albores <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>), and even less regarding this fungus and crops in northwestern Mexico.</p>
				<p>The effectiveness of the fungus <italic>Coniothyrium minitans</italic> against white mold has been demonstrated elsewhere (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Huang and Hoes, 1980</xref>; McQuilk <italic>et al.</italic>, 1995; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Zeng <italic>et al.</italic>, 2012</xref>b); the efficacy of preventive applications against <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> ascospore germination on bean and potato inflorescences should be determined in Sinaloa, as this phenological stage in both crops occurs during winter, when temperatures range from 5 to 25°C, favoring ascospore release by the pathogen and potential colonization of this structures by the antagonistic fungus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Clarkson <italic>et al.</italic>, 2003</xref>). However, <italic>C. minitans</italic> application on crop residues with the antagonistic on sclerotia may not be effective in reducing their viability since summer temperatures in Sinaloa reach up to 40°C at the soil surface, contrasting with other producing areas where the mycoparasite is applied to crop residues in early autumn with temperatures around 20 °C (Zeng <italic>et al.</italic>, 2012b).</p>
				<p>Regarding antagonistic bacteria, <italic>Bacillus cereus</italic> and <italic>B. subtilis</italic> were found to control sunflower stem rot caused by <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Zazzerinim, 1987</xref>). A similar effect was observed when <italic>B. subtilis</italic> BY-2 was applied as seed treatment or sprayed during flowering against the same disease in canola (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Hu <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014</xref>). These findings lead to the search for such bacteria in Sinaloa and the determination of their efficacy in controlling white mold in beans and potatoes.</p>
				<p>To complement the white mold management scheme, studies on phenology of bean and potato varieties should be conducted to determine the heat unit accumulation necessary for flowering initiation, as when this phenological stage coincides with favorable environmental conditions for ascospore, release and infection of senescent flowers, which detach and fall onto plants, initiating the first disease symptoms. Additionally, the flowering period varies in both beans and potatoes, undoubtedly influencing the presence of substrate for ascospore infection in disease development. Compiling information on this topic will contribute to greater efficacy of fungicides and biocontrol agents in disease management.</p>
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				<title>Conclusions</title>
				<p>White mold of beans and potatoes is one of the most important diseases affecting these crops in Sinaloa. Although studies on the ecology of the causal agent and disease epidemiology have been conducted elsewhere, research on these topics in this region is incipient. In this regard, implementing a management system that integrates soil temperature and crop phenology has allowed efficient use of fungicides for disease control; however, new research avenues are opening up concerning bean and potato variety phenology, determining heat units required for the onset of flowering in commercial varieties, which is important for white mold epidemic progression. Additionally, the control scheme should investigate the biological effectiveness of endemic <italic>Trichoderma</italic> species in disease management from <italic>in vitro</italic> to semi-commercial plots experimentation and subsequent transfer to commercial fields.</p>
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