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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">rmfi</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Revista mexicana de fitopatología</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Rev. mex. fitopatol</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">0185-3309</issn>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2007-8080</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedad Mexicana de Fitopatología A.C.</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.18781/R.MEX.FIT.2405-3</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artículo Científico</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Valorización del nejayote como medio de cultivo para <italic>Pseudomonas fluorescens</italic> y producción de extractos antifúngicos</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Rodríguez-Romero</surname>
						<given-names>Víctor Manuel</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Villanueva-Arce</surname>
						<given-names>Ramón</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Durán-Páramo</surname>
						<given-names>Enrique</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff1">
					<label>1 </label>
					<institution content-type="original">Laboratorio de Biotecnología Alimentaria, Unidad Profesional Interdisciplinaria de Biotecnología (UPIBI), Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN), Av. Acueducto s/n, Barrio La Laguna Ticomán, Ciudad de México, CP 07340, México.</institution>
					<institution content-type="normalized">Instituto Politécnico Nacional </institution>
					<institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Politécnico Nacional</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<postal-code>07340</postal-code>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1">
					<label><italic>*</italic></label><bold>
 <italic>Autor de correspondencia</italic>:</bold> Enrique Durán-Páramo <email>eduran@ipn.mx</email>
				</corresp>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>18</day>
				<month>02</month>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<season>Sep-Dec</season>
				<year>2024</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>42</volume>
			<issue>3</issue>
			<elocation-id>RMEXFIT24053</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>01</day>
					<month>05</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>30</day>
					<month>06</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
					<license-p>Este es un artículo publicado en acceso abierto bajo una licencia Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>RESUMEN</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Antecedentes / Objetivo. </title>
					<p>El nejayote es un residuo agroindustrial alcalino que se genera a partir del proceso de nixtamalización del maíz. El propósito de este trabajo fue demostrar que el nejayote puede ser utilizado como medio de cultivo para el crecimiento de <italic>Pseudomonas fluorescens</italic> NR113647 y para la producción de metabolitos con actividad antifúngica para el manejo sustentable de <italic>Aspergillus niger, Botrytis cinerea</italic> y <italic>Fusarium solani</italic>.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Materiales y Métodos. </title>
					<p>Se formularon medios de cultivo con nejayote y nejayote con glicerol, con pH 6 y 12. La biomasa bacteriana fue separada por centrifugación y filtración y se determinó la capacidad antifúngica <italic>in vitro</italic> de los extractos contra</p>
					<p><italic>A. niger, B. cinerea</italic> y <italic>F. solani.</italic> Además, se realizó la determinación de los metabolitos presentes en los extractos. <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647 fue capaz de crecer en todos los medios.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Resultados</title>
					<p>. Los extractos provenientes de nejayote a pH 12 mostraron inhibición del crecimiento de todos los hongos evaluados; se identificaron al menos cinco metabolitos producidos por <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647 involucrados en el biocontrol de fitopatógenos<italic>.</italic></p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Conclusión. </title>
					<p>El nejayote puede ser usado como medio de cultivo para <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647<italic>,</italic> para la producción de biomasa y metabolitos secundarios con capacidad antifúngica; además, el nejayote podría usarse para el cultivo de otros microorganismos.</p>
				</sec>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
				<title>Palabras clave<italic>:</italic></title>
				<kwd>Control biológico</kwd>
				<kwd>nixtamalización</kwd>
				<kwd>actividad antifúngica.</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="4"/>
				<table-count count="6"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="45"/>
				<page-count count="0"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introducción</title>
			<p>Uno de los enfoques principales de la biotecnología moderna es el uso del control biológico de fitopatógenos en la agricultura, que se define como la acción de agentes naturales efectivos para combatir enfermedades en cultivos, los cuales representan una alternativa para reducir el uso de productos químicos potencialmente dañinos para el medio ambiente y para la salud humana (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Thambugala <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). De los distintos tipos de agentes de control biológico, los agentes microbianos y en particular, bacterias del género <italic>Pseudomonas</italic> son una excelente opción para aplicarse en la agricultura (Santoyo <italic>et al</italic>., 2012).</p>
			<p>El biocontrol mediado por cepas de <italic>Pseudomonas</italic> se realiza a través de mecanismos como la antibiosis directa, la competencia por nutrientes y por el espacio, la promoción del crecimiento vegetal y la inducción de resistencia sistémica en las plantas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Dimkić <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>). Diversos productos comerciales se han elaborado a partir de biomasa de <italic>Pseudomonas,</italic> por ejemplo<italic>:</italic> BioJect Spot-Less™, Bio-Save® 10LP, AtEze™, Cedemon, entre otros (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Mark <italic>et al</italic>., 2006</xref>). La producción de biomasa microbiana y metabolitos en medios de cultivo líquidos, es indispensable para el desarrollo de productos a base de cepas bacterianas como <italic>Pseudomonas</italic>; sin embargo, el uso de medios de cultivo comerciales en la multiplicación de los microorganismos representa un alto costo; por lo tanto, el uso de subproductos o desechos de la industria alimentaria representa una opción para reducir los costos asociados a la producción y recuperación de agentes de control biológico, al mismo tiempo que se logra la gestión y conversión de residuos en productos utilizables mediante la aplicación de tecnologías biotecnológicas. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Khalil <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Sivakumar <italic>et al.,</italic> 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Suryanti <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>).</p>
			<p>Uno de los principales desechos de la industria alimentaria proviene del proce-</p>
			<p>samiento del maíz (<italic>Zea mays</italic>), el cual está íntimamente relacionado con la cultura mexicana. La tortilla representa el principal alimento derivado del procesamiento del maíz (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Hellin <italic>et al.</italic>, 2010</xref>); al respecto, se estima que en México el consumo anual actual de tortillas per cápita es de 120 kg (FAOSTAT, 2023). Para la producción de tortillas, los granos de maíz se someten a un proceso térmico alcalino llamado nixtamalización que consiste en la cocción de granos de maíz maduros con cal, los cuales son molidos para obtener una masa y finalmente son procesados (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Serna-Saldivar, 2021</xref>). La nixtamalización produce cambios químicos y nutricionales en el maíz y el principal subproducto del proceso de nixtamalización es el ‘nejayote’, considerado el agua alcalina de cocción del maíz; se estima que por cada kilogramo de maíz procesado se obtienen entre 7-8 litros de nejayote (DíazMontes <italic>et al</italic>., 2020).</p>
			<p>El nejayote es considerado uno de los efluentes más contaminantes de la industria alimentaria. Este líquido contiene altas concentraciones de materia orgánica</p>
			<p>disuelta, correspondiente a las estructuras del grano de maíz que se desprenden durante la cocción (principalmente endospermo y el pericarpio) y a la cal usada en el proceso (DQO &gt; 28450 mg L-1). Además, el nejayote se caracteriza por tener un pH alcalino con un valor superior a 10 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Meraz <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>). El nejayote representa una fuente importante de azúcares fermentables y compuestos como proteínas, fibras, grasas, etc. Por lo anterior, la utilización del nejayote en otros procesos o purificación de componentes, lo vuelven potencialmente aplicable en la industria biotecnológica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Xu <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>).</p>
			<p>Se ha demostrado que el nejayote puede usarse como un medio de cultivo alternativo para desarrollo de distintos microorganismos como <italic>Arthrospira maxima</italic>, <italic>Aspergillus oryzae, Bacillus thuringiensis, Chlorella vulgaris, Lactobacillus casei,</italic></p>
			<p><italic>L. helveticus L. rhamnosus,</italic> así como para la producción de distintos metabolitos secundarios como enzimas, pigmentos o antibióticos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Bacame-Valenzuela <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">López-Pacheco <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Ramírez-Romero <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>; Salazar-Magallon <italic>et al.</italic>, 2015).</p>
			<p>El objetivo de este trabajo fue evaluar el uso del nejayote como medio de cultivo alternativo para el crecimiento de <italic>Pseudomonas fluorescens</italic> NR113647 y para la producción de metabolitos secundarios con actividad antifúngica.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="materials|methods">
			<title>Materiales y Métodos</title>
			<p>Material biológico. Se usó la cepa de <italic>Pseudomonas fluorescens</italic> NR113647 identificada previamente con base a las características morfológicas, culturales y bioquímicas del organismo, la identificación molecular se realizó por amplificación y secuenciación del rARN 16s y alineación con las bases de datos del Banco de Genes del Centro Nacional para la Información Biotecnológica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Rodríguez-Romero <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). La bacteria se cultivó en Agar <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">King B (KB) (King <italic>et al</italic>., 1954</xref>) durante 7 días e incubó a temperatura ambiente (25 ± 2 °C) para los ensayos posteriores. Las cepas de <italic>Aspergillus niger, Botrytis cinerea</italic> y <italic>Fusarium solani</italic>, utilizadas fueron aisladas y proporcionados por el Laboratorio de Tecnología Postcosecha del Centro de Desarrollo de Productos Bióticos del Instituto Politécnico Nacional de México (CEPROBI-IPN). Se realizó la identificación molecular (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Harwood, 1996</xref>) en el Laboratorio de Diagnóstico Integral Fitosanitario (LADIFIT) del Colegio de Postgraduados. Los hongos se cultivaron de forma individual en medio Papa Dextrosa Agar (PDA, BD Bioxon, México) durante 4-7 días e incubaron a temperatura ambiente (25 ± 2 °C) para los ensayos posteriores.</p>
			<p>Obtención, acondicionamiento de nejayote y formulación del medio de cultivo.</p>
			<p>El nejayote utilizado fue colectado de dos negocios procesadores de maíz ubicados</p>
			<p>en la localidad de La Laguna Ticomán, Ciudad de México (19° 31’ 12” N, 99° 07’ 45” W y altitud de 2248 msnm) y posteriormente se mezclaron. Para eliminar materia orgánica sedimentable, el nejayote se centrifugó (Centrífuga Beckman Coulter® J2-MC, California, EE.UU.) a 10000 rpm durante 15 min a una temperatura de 4 °C, se recuperó el sobrenadante y se midió el pH por electrodo de inmersión (HANNA pHep5®, Romania). Para la elaboración de los medios de cultivo, se realizó un diseño de tratamientos completamente al azar en arreglo factorial que resultó en un total de cuatro tratamientos; 1) Nejayote a pH 6 (N6), 2) Nejayote a pH 12 (N12), 3) Nejayote a pH 6 con 10 g L-1 de glicerol (Ngly 6) y 4) Nejayote a pH 12 con 10 g L-1 de glicerol (Ngly12). El pH del nejayote se ajustó con NaOH o HCl 1 N según fuera necesario. Se usó caldo de cultivo King B (KB) pH 6 como testigo.</p>
			<p><bold>pH y evaluación de la producción de biomasa de <italic>P. fluorescens.</italic> 
</bold> El cultivo se realizó en matraces Erlenmeyer de 250 mL, con 100 mL de cada uno de los diferentes tratamientos, se realizaron tres repeticiones independientes por cada tratamiento. Los matraces se esterilizaron (Autoclave Yamato Scientific co. Ltd, SM510, Japón) durante 15 min a 121 °C, se inocularon con 10 mL de <italic>Pseudomonas fluorescens</italic> NR113647 (106 UFC mL-1) y se incubaron a 25 ± 2 °C durante 72 h en agitación constante (120 rpm). Al finalizar el cultivo, el pH de los medios de cultivo se determinó por electrodo de inmersión (HANNA pHep5®, Romania) y se evaluó el desarrollo de biomasa de <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647 por el método de extensión en placa; para ello, se realizaron diluciones seriadas a partir de cada uno de los medios de cultivo, se sembraron en placas con agar cuenta estándar (ACS, BD Bioxon, México) y se incubaron a 25 °C durante 48 h.</p>
			<p><bold>Evaluación de la actividad antifúngica <italic>in vitro</italic> de los extractos de <italic>P. fluorescens.</italic> 
</bold> Para la obtención de los extractos antifúngicos, después de la incubación, cada uno de los tratamientos se centrifugaron (Centrífuga Beckman Coulter® J2-MC, California, EE.UU.) 15 min a 10015 xg a 4°C, se recuperó el sobrenadante, se filtró con membranas estériles (Cole Palmer, EUA) de 0.22 μm. El efecto antifúngico de los extractos se determinó con la técnica del medio de cultivo envenenado (Erhonyota <italic>et al.,</italic> 2023); para ello, se preparó Agar Papa Dextrosa (PDA, BD Bioxon, México) al doble de la concentración recomendada por el fabricante (78 g L-1), el cual se esterilizó (Autoclave Yamato Scientific co. Ltd, SM510, Japón) durante 15 min a 121 °C. Posteriormente, el medio PDA (BD Bioxon, México) se enfrió a una temperatura de 45 °C, se mezcló con el sobrenadante filtrado de cada uno de los tratamientos en proporción 1:1, se depositaron en cajas Petri (90 x 15 mm) y se dejaron solidificar. Se usó medio PDA (BD Bioxon, México) a la concentración recomendada por el fabricante (39 g L-1) como testigo, se realizaron cinco repeticiones independientes por tratamiento. En el centro de las cajas Petri, se sembraron discos</p>
			<p>de 5 mm de diámetro con micelio de cada uno de los hongos. El ensayo terminó una vez que el crecimiento de los hongos en el testigo negativo alcanzó el borde de la caja. El porcentaje de inhibición se calculó mediante la medición del diámetro de la colonia de cada unidad experimental, después se usó la fórmula: Inhibición (%) = [(Da-Db) / Da] x 100, donde Da (mm) es el diámetro de crecimiento de los hongos en la placa usada como testigo negativo y Db (mm) es el diámetro de crecimiento de los hongos en las placas del ensayo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Al‐Hetar <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>).</p>
			<p><bold>Identificación de los metabolitos antifúngicos de <italic>P. fluorescens.</italic> 
</bold> Para la identificación de los metabolitos se utilizó el extracto de medio de nejayote con mayor actividad antifúngica <italic>in vitro;</italic> el tratamiento se mezcló con acetato de etilo en una relación 1:1 y se agitó durante 2 h a 120 rpm. La fracción acuosa se desechó y la fracción orgánica se evaporó a presión reducida, para obtener extracto crudo seco. El extracto seco se suspendió en acetato de etilo a una concentración de 1 mg mL-1. Los estándares de fluoroglucinol y fenazina (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, EE.UU.) se suspendieron en acetato de etilo a una concentración de 0.5 mg mL-1, se tomaron alícuotas de 50 µL y se sometieron a cromatografía de capa fina (TLC; silica gel. 60 F254, 20 X 20, 0.5 mm, Merck and Co, Inc) con un sistema solvente hexano:acetona 3:2. La placa se secó completamente y los compuestos se recuperaron y se detectaron a 254 nm (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Suleimana <italic>et al</italic>., 2010</xref>).</p>
			<p>Para la identificación de cianuro de hidrógeno (HCN), se utilizó el método descrito por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Verma <italic>et al</italic>. (2007</xref>). Se inocularon cajas Petri con agar de soya tripticaseína (AST, BD Bioxon, México) con 100 𝜇L del extracto del medio de nejayote con mayor actividad antifúngica, extracto de medio KB (testigo positivo) y agua destilada (testigo negativo); en la parte superior de la caja, se colocaron discos de papel filtro (Whatman no. 1) impregnados de ácido pícrico 0.5 % y carbonato de sodio 2 %, las cajas se sellaron y se incubaron a 30 °C durante 24 h. Después de la incubación, un cambio de color en el papel filtro indica producción de HCN positiva.</p>
			<p>Para la identificación de sideróforos se usó el método de ensayo en placa CASagar (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Schwyn y Neilands, 1987</xref>). Se usó el complejo de cromo azurol S (CAS)/ Fe3+/ Hexadeciltrimetilamonio bromuro (HDTMA) como indicador. Para preparar 1 L de agar azul, se disolvieron 60.5 mg de CAS en 50 mL de agua mezclada con</p>
			<p>10 mL de Fe III (1 mM FeCl3·6H2O en 50 mL de 10 mM HCl), después se mezcló con 900 mL de agar bacteriológico (15 g L-1) a pH 7. Las placas se inocularon con 1 mL del extracto de nejayote con mayor actividad antifúngica, 1 mL de extracto</p>
			<p>de KB (testigo positivo) y 1 mL de agua destilada (testigo negativo). Las placas se incubaron durante 6 días. La producción de sideróforos se clasificó visualmente en el medio de cultivo en cuatro categorías: 1. Sin producción, 2. Baja producción (amarillo claro), 3. Alta producción (amarillo moderado) 4. Muy alta producción (amarillo).</p>
			<p>Análisis estadístico. Los datos experimentales fueron analizados con el software SAS® Studio 3.82 (SAS Institute, Cary, NC), se utilizó el análisis de varianza (ANOVA) y la prueba de Tukey (*=p ≤ 0.05) para la comparación de medias de los tratamientos.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="results|discussion">
			<title>Resultados y Discusión</title>
			<p><bold>pH y evaluación de la producción de biomasa de <italic>P. fluorescens.</italic> 
</bold> Se recolectaron aproximadamente 40 L de nejayote, el pH después de la centrifugación fue 12.21, por lo que se ajustó a los valores correspondientes para cada tratamiento. <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647 fue capaz de crecer en todos los medios de cultivo de este estudio. La concentración de biomasa producida en los diferentes medios de cultivo fue variable, donde el mayor desarrollo celular se obtuvo en el medio KB (testigo) y no hubo diferencias estadísticas con relación a los medios 3 y 4; los tres medios fueron suplementados con glicerol en su formulación inicial. Los medios 1 y 2 (sin adición de glicerol) presentaron una menor concentración de biomasa con respecto al testigo y a los medios con nejayote que se les adicionó glicerol (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Cuadro 1</xref>). <italic>Pseudomonas</italic> tiene requerimientos nutricionales simples debido a su capacidad para degradar una gran variedad de sustratos orgánicos, desde compuestos aromáticos hasta derivados halogenados y otros residuos orgánicos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Sah <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). En este sentido, se ha demostrado la capacidad del nejayote para ser usado como medio de cultivo, ya que contiene azúcares fermentables a una concentración aproximada de</p>
			<p>148.6 mg L-1 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">García-Depraect <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>). Por otra parte, <italic>Pseudomonas</italic> es capaz</p>
			<p>de utilizar el glicerol como fuente de carbono para la producción de biomasa (Poblete-Castro <italic>et al</italic>., 2020), además, se ha observado que <italic>Pseudomonas</italic> produce una mayor concentración de biomasa en los medios que contienen glicerol como fuente</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t1">
					<label>Cuadro 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Evaluación del crecimiento de <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647 y valores de pH de los distintos tratamientos después de 72 h de incubación.</title>
					</caption>
					<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Tratamiento</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Medio de cultivo</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Biomasa (Ln UFC mL<sup>-1</sup>)</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">pH final</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:left">Testigo</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">KB6</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">20.52±0.03 a</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">6.93±0.05 a</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:left">1</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">N6</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">19.55±0.17 b</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">8.40±0.06 b</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:left">2</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">N12</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">19.72±0.25 b</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">8.46±0.06 b</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:left">3</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">Ngly6</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">20.17±0.11 a</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">8.02±0.09 c</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:left">4</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">Ngly12</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">20.22±0.03 a</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">8.03±0.03 c</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN1">
							<p>Resultados expresados con la media ± desviación estándar para cada muestra (n = 3). *Letras diferentes en cada columna indican una diferencia significativa (*=p ≤ 0.05) según la prueba de Tukey.</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>de carbono, con respecto a los que tienen otras fuentes de carbono como glucosa o succinato (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Nikel <italic>et al</italic>., 2014</xref>).</p>
			<p>Los valores de pH variaron durante el cultivo en todos los medios de cultivo utilizados. En los tratamientos que iniciaron con un pH 6.0 se observó un incremento del valor pH, mientras que en los cultivos que iniciaron con un pH 12 se observó un decremento de este (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Cuadro 1</xref>). En los medios 1 y 2, donde había únicamente nejayote, no se observaron diferencias estadísticas (*=p ≤ 0.05). El valor de pH entre los tratamientos 3 y 4 tampoco mostró diferencias estadísticas (*=p ≤ 0.05). Por otra parte, el medio de cultivo utilizado como testigo, mantuvo un valor de pH bajo y significativamente diferente con respeto a los demás tratamientos (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Cuadro 1</xref>).</p>
			<p><italic>P. fluorescens,</italic> y en general las células bacterianas, dependen de manera crucial del pH del medio en el que se desarrollan. Valores de pH cercanos a 7 son los adecuados para la mayoría de las bacterias. La autorregulación del pH que incluye la detección y adaptación al pH exterior es un mecanismo importante para el desarrollo microbiano. Al respecto, se han identificado numerosas adaptaciones que contribuyen a la homeostasis en un pH alcalino (Sánchez-Clemente, 2018). Cuando las bacterias se encuentran en condiciones alcalinas (pH&lt;10), el transporte activo de protones o fuerza motriz de protones es fundamental para su adaptación a su nicho ecológico; el mecanismo incluye niveles elevados de transportadores y enzimas que promueven la captura y retención de protones (ATP sintasa y antiportadores de protones/catión monovalente). Además, se presentan cambios metabólicos, que conducen a una mayor producción de ácido y cambios en las capas de la superficie celular que contribuyen a la retención de protones en el citoplasma (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Krulwich <italic>et al.,</italic> 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Padan <italic>et al</italic>., 2005</xref>). La tolerancia al medio alcalino y disminución del pH inicial (de 12 a 8 aproximadamente), resulta importante considerando que en México se establece que el intervalo permisible de pH para aguas residuales que se descargan a los sistemas de alcantarillado urbano o municipal es de entre 5.5 y</p>
			<p>10.0 (NOM-002-ECOL-1996). Por lo anterior, el nejayote no debe de depositarse</p>
			<p>en el alcantarillado municipal; por el contrario, podría en efecto ser utilizado como medio de cultivo para el desarrollo de biomasa y producción de metabolitos, considerando que el caldo de cultivo final usado tendría un valor de pH acorde a las normas de México y podría desecharse.</p>
			<p><bold>Evaluación <italic>in vitro</italic> de la actividad antifúngica de los extractos de <italic>P. fluorescens.</italic> 
</bold> El periodo de incubación, hasta que los hongos en el testigo negativo (PDA, BD Bioxon, México) alcanzaron el borde de la placa Petri, fue de 9 días para <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> y <italic>Botrytis cinerea</italic>, mientras que para <italic>Fusarium solani</italic> fue de 14 días. El <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Cuadro 2</xref> muestra los valores de crecimiento (mm) e inhibición (%) que generaron los distintos tratamientos en los hongos.</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t2">
					<label>Cuadro 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Evaluación del efecto antifúngico de los extractos obtenidos de <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647, sobre el crecimiento micelial y la inhibición de <italic>Fusarium solani, Botrytis cinerea</italic> y <italic>Aspergillus niger.</italic></title>
					</caption>
					<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Tratamiento</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Medio de cultivo</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Biomasa (Ln UFC mL<sup>-1</sup>)</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">pH final</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:left;">Testigo</td>
								<td style="text-align:left;">KB6</td>
								<td style="text-align:left;">20.52±0.03 a</td>
								<td style="text-align:left;">6.93±0.05 a</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:left;">1</td>
								<td style="text-align:left;">N6</td>
								<td style="text-align:left;">19.55±0.17 b</td>
								<td style="text-align:left;">8.40±0.06 b</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:left;">2</td>
								<td style="text-align:left;">N12</td>
								<td style="text-align:left;">19.72±0.25 b</td>
								<td style="text-align:left;">8.46±0.06 b</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:left;">3</td>
								<td style="text-align:left;">Ngly6</td>
								<td style="text-align:left;">20.17±0.11 a</td>
								<td style="text-align:left;">8.02±0.09 c</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:left;">4</td>
								<td style="text-align:left;">Ngly12</td>
								<td style="text-align:left;">20.22±0.03 a</td>
								<td style="text-align:left;">8.03±0.03 c</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN2">
							<p>Testigo negativo=PDA. Testigo positivo=KB6. Resultados expresados con la media ± desviación estándar para cada muestra (n = 5). Letras diferentes en cada columna indican una diferencia significativa (*=p ≤ 0.05) según la prueba de Tukey.</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>Los hongos utilizados en este estudio y cultivados en medio PDA tuvieron un crecimiento radial. Los extractos obtenidos del medio KB6 (testigo positivo) produjeron los mayores niveles y porcentajes de inhibición <italic>in vitro</italic> de todos los tratamientos. <italic>Botrytis cinerea</italic> fue el más sensible, ya que su crecimiento se inhibió en un 100 %. En otros estudios se ha observado distintos valores de inhibición que van desde 60 % hasta un 75-99 %, con extractos obtenidos de caldo nutritivo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Mikani <italic>et al.</italic>, 2008</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Wallace <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>).</p>
			<p>En los tratamientos del testigo positivo para la cepa de <italic>Fusarium solani</italic> se obtuvo una inhibición de 66%, en comparación con otros estudios donde cepas de</p>
			<p><italic>P. fluorescens</italic> mostraron una inhibición que va desde 43 % hasta una completa inhibición (100 %) del crecimiento micelial de <italic>Fusarium</italic> spp<italic>.</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Al-Fadhal, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Trejo-Raya <italic>et al.,</italic> 2021</xref>). La cepa de <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> fue la que desarrolló un mayor crecimiento, con una inhibición del 45 %; sin embargo, se ha reportado en otros estudios que <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> mostró una inhibición entre un 20-30 % en comparación con el control (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Akocak <italic>et al.,</italic> 2015</xref>) y hasta un 78.77% del crecimiento micelial (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Deshmukh, 2015</xref>).</p>
			<p>Los extractos obtenidos del medio N6 no inhibieron el crecimiento de ninguno de los hongos evaluados <italic>in vitro</italic> en este estudio; este comportamiento fue similar para los extractos obtenidos del medio Ngly6 que no inhibieron el crecimiento de <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> y <italic>Fusarium solani,</italic> aunque para <italic>Botrytis cinerea</italic> se registró inhibición de 32 % aproximadamente. En contraparte, los extractos obtenidos de Ngly12 generaron valores de inhibición entre 14 y 25 % para <italic>Aspergillu niger</italic> y <italic>Fusarium solani</italic>, sin embargo, se observó una inhibición de casi 70 % en <italic>Botrytis cinerea</italic>. Los extractos obtenidos de N12 para los hongos <italic>Botrytis cinerea</italic> y</p>
			<p><italic>Aspergillus niger,</italic> generaron valores de inhibición numéricamente similares, pero significativamente diferentes a los obtenidos con los extractos del testigo positivo (KB6); para el hongo <italic>Fusarium solani</italic> no hubo diferencia estadística entre el medio KB6 y N12<italic>.</italic></p>
			<p>Debido a que la composición de los medios de nejayote es básicamente la misma en todos los tratamientos, los resultados de este estudio podrían sugerir que las diferencias en el efecto de inhibición está ligada a los valores iniciales de pH y a la adición de glicerol a los medios de cultivo; Saleh-Lakha <italic>et al.</italic> (2009) determinaron que los niveles de expresión génica para la producción de metabolitos por <italic>Pseudomonas mandelii</italic> fueron entre 539 y 6190 veces más bajos en medio con un pH de 5, que para valores de pH 8. Por otra parte, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Zhou <italic>et al.</italic> (2012</xref>) observaron que para que una cepa de <italic>Pseudomonas</italic> exprese actividad antifúngica, el valor del pH del medio de cultivo debe ser al menos de 10. Los genes implicados en la producción de metabolitos se relacionan de forma directa con la transcripción de genes involucrados en la protección contra el estrés, así como daños en la membrana y pared celular; estos genes forman parte del sistema regulador global para la activación de la síntesis de antibióticos y cianuro (GaC) y el sistema represor de metabolitos secundarios (RsM), los cuales se ven influenciados de forma positiva por señales ambientales donde destacan valores de pH 8 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Anderson <italic>et al.,</italic> 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Xue <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>). Con respecto a la adición de glicerol al medio, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Nikel <italic>et al</italic>. (2014</xref>) concluyeron que el crecimiento de <italic>Pseudomonas</italic> en presencia de glicerol, altera la transcripción de alrededor de 104 genes que codifican actividades metabólicas y no metabólicas, las cuales podrían estar involucradas en la producción de metabolitos antifúngicos. En el caso del presente estudio, es probable que el cultivo de <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647 a pH 12 podría incrementar la expresión de la producción de metabolitos relacionados con el biocontrol.</p>
			<p>Identificación de los metabolitos involucrados en la actividad antifúngi ca. La cromatografía en capa fina de los extractos crudos secos de <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647 cultivada en el medio de cultivo N12, mostró la presencia de al menos cinco compuestos, los cuales se compararon con los estándares de fenazina y fluoroglucinol (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Cuadro 3</xref>). Los recorridos de los componentes eluidos podrían indicar que el extracto crudo seco contiene al menos un compuesto antifúngico que puede ser derivado del fluoroglucinol y que corresponde a la mancha 1. El fluoroglucinol es un metabolito con numerosos derivados y ampliamente reconocido por su capacidad antifúngica, algunas cepas de <italic>Pseudomonas</italic> producen 2,4-diacetilfluoroglucinol y sus intermedios monoacetilfluoroglucinol y fluoroglucinol (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Biessy y Filion, 2021</xref>). Por otro lado, la mancha 5 es la más próxima al estándar de fenazina lo que podría indicar la presencia de algún derivado de este componente, ya que se conoce que el género <italic>Pseudomonas</italic> produce ácido fenazina-1-carboxílico y 2-hi-</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t3">
					<label>Cuadro 3</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Factores de retención de los extractos de <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647 obtenidos del tratamiento N12, comparación contra compuestos estándar.</title>
					</caption>
					<table border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th style="text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Sustancia</th>
								<th style="text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Rf</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:left;">Mancha 1</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0.20</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:left;">Mancha 2</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0.31</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:left;">Mancha 3</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0.47</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:left;">Mancha 4</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0.52</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:left;">Mancha 5</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0.92</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:left; font-style:italic">Fenazina</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0.83</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:left; font-style:italic">Fluoroglucinol</td>
								<td style="text-align:center;">0.21</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN3">
							<p>*Estándares [0,5 mg mL-1] y extractos de <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647 [1 mg mL-1]. Sistema hexano: acetona (2:1). Los compuestos fueron detectados con UV a 254 nm.</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>droxifenazina, los cuales son metabolitos con actividad antifúngica contra hongos fitopatógenos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Castaldi <italic>et al.,</italic> 2021</xref>). A pesar de que no se pudieron identificar todos los metabolitos presentes en el extracto crudo seco, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Zhang <italic>et al.</italic>, (2020</xref>), observaron que <italic>Pseudomonas</italic> alberga genes involucrados en la producción de más de diez metabolitos como el diacetilfluoroglucinol, pioverdinas, pioquelinas, pirrolnitrina, HCN, etc., los cuales podrían corresponder al resto de los componentes eluidos en el ensayo de cromatografía de capa fina. Sin embargo, los resultados podrían no ser extrapolables en su totalidad y se requieren estudios profundos para la determinación de metabolitos en este estudio.</p>
			<p>Para la identificación de la producción de HCN (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>), en la placa testigo</p>
			<p>(A) no se observó cambio de coloración. Los extractos obtenidos del medio KB6 (testigo) mostraron un color naranja en la periferia que indica que <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647 produce HCN en este medio de cultivo. La placa del extracto del medio N12 mostró un ligero color naranja-amarillo, por lo que se puede asumir que también hay una presencia de HCN, pero en cantidades menores con respecto a KB6. La producción de HCN por microorganismos juega un papel importante en la inhibición del crecimiento de diversos hongos y otros agentes bióticos fitopatógenos que incluyen malezas, insectos y nematodos, tiene un amplio espectro ya que interfiere directamente con la respiración celular en patógenos eucariotas, por lo que puede ser usada ampliamente como metabolito de biocontrol (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Sehrawat <italic>et al.,</italic> 2022</xref>).</p>
			<p>Con relación a la producción de sideróforos, según el ensayo en placa CASagar, descrito en la metodología (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>), no se observó cambio de coloración en la placa de Petri con agua destilada estéril. En el medio KB6 se observó una coloración amarilla intensa que evidencia una gran proporción de estos metabolitos. Para</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f1">
					<label>Figura 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Identificación de la producción de cianuro de hidrógeno en placa de Petri. Testigo negativo de agua destilada (A), extractos libres de células de <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647 en medio KB6 (B) y extractos libres de células de <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647 en medio N12 (C).</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-03-RMEXFIT24053-gf1.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f2">
					<label>Figura 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Identificación de sideróforos, placa de Petri con agua destilada estéril como testigo (A) y extractos libres de células de <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647 (B) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Trejo-Raya <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>) y extractos libres de células de <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647 en medio N12 (C).</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-03-RMEXFIT24053-gf2.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>el caso del medio N12, se apreció una coloración amarilla pálida que evidencia una producción limitada de sideróforos. Estos metabolitos se reportan como uno de los principales compuestos de control biológico con efecto antifúngico por parte de <italic>P. fluorescens</italic>, los cuales permiten la adquisición de Fe del medio o sitio de colonización y así mantener el crecimiento normal de la bacteria (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Rizzi <italic>et al.,</italic> 2019</xref>). Sin embargo, en el presente estudio, se observó que las condiciones del medio N12 no favorece la producción de sideróforos debido a la baja producción con respecto al testigo y por lo tanto no fueron los principales metabolitos de biocontrol.</p>
			<p>El complejo de <italic>Pseudomonas fluorescens</italic> incluye a más de cincuenta especies diferentes de cepas asignadas taxonómicamente, la mayoría de ellas con aplica-</p>
			<p>ciones potenciales en el biocontrol. Una alta proporción de estas cepas no se han secuenciado completamente y presentan una alta homología molecular, además se describen nuevas especies de forma frecuente (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Garrido-Sanz <italic>et al.,</italic> 2016</xref>), por lo tanto, los resultados de esta investigación no se pueden correlacionar de forma directa para todas las poblaciones de <italic>P. fluorescens,</italic> sin embargo el uso de <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647 y este medio de cultivo propuestos, podría ser útil para la valoración del metabolismo de otras cepas y/o poblaciones genéticas del complejo <italic>P. fluorescens.</italic></p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusiones</title>
			<p>En este estudio se investigó el uso potencial del nejayote como un medio de cultivo alternativo de <italic>Pseudomonas fluorescens</italic> NR113647<italic>.</italic> La cepa fue capaz de crecer en todos los tratamientos conteniendo nejayote; entre los extractos evaluados, el extracto de Nejayote pH 12 mostró los mejores resultados, ya que inhibió el crecimiento micelial <italic>in vitro</italic> de los hongos <italic>Botrytis cinérea</italic>, <italic>Fusarium solani</italic> y <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> en 76.66, 64.55 y 26.56%, respectivamente. En el análisis de metabolitos antifúngicos del extracto de Nejayote de pH 12, se identificó la producción de cianuro de hidrógeno y sideróforos, así como la posible producción de compuestos derivados de fenazina y fluoroglucinol. La valorización del nejayote y uso a pH 12 sin adición de glicerol, representa una alternativa viable y amigable con el medio ambiente para su utilización como medio de cultivo de <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647, en la producción de biomasa y de extractos que contengan metabolitos secundarios de interés en la industria agrícola para el control de enfermedades causadas por hongos fitopatógenos.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
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	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="en">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Scientific Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>“Nejayote” valorization as a culture medium for <italic>Pseudomonas fluorescens</italic> and production of antifungal extracts</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<abstract>
				<title>ABSTRACT</title>
				<p> </p>
				<sec>
					<title>Background / Objetive. </title>
					<p>Nejayote is an alkaline agroindustrial waste that is generated from the nixtamalization process of corn. The purpose of this work was to demonstrate that nejayote can be used as a culture medium for the growth of <italic>Pseudomonas fluorescens</italic> NR113647 and to produce metabolites with antifungal activity for the sustainable management of <italic>Aspergillus niger, Botrytis cinerea</italic> and <italic>Fusarium solani</italic>.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Materials and Methods. </title>
					<p>Culture media were formulated with nejayote and nejayote with glycerol, with pH 6 and 12. The bacterial biomass was separated by centrifugation and filtration and the antifungal capacity of the extracts against <italic>A. niger, B. cinerea</italic> and <italic>F. solani</italic> was determined. The determination of the metabolites present in the extracts was carried out. <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647 was able to grow on all media.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Results. </title>
					<p>The extracts from nejayote at pH 12 showed inhibition of the growth of all the fungi evaluated; at least five metabolites produced by <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647 and involved in the biocontrol of phytopathogens were identified.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Conclusion. </title>
					<p>Nejayote can be used as a culture medium for <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647, to produce biomass and secondary metabolites with antifungal capacity; in addition, nejayote could be used for the cultivation of other microorganisms.</p>
				</sec>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>Biological control</kwd>
				<kwd>nixtamalization</kwd>
				<kwd>antifungal activity<italic>.</italic></kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introduction</title>
				<p>One of the main approaches of modern biotechnology is the use of the biological control of phytopathogens in agriculture, which is defined as the action of effective natural agents to fight diseases in crops, which represent an alternative for the reduction of the use of potentially damaging chemical products to the environment and human health (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Thambugala <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). Out of the different types of biological control agents, microbial agents and particularly bacteria of the genus <italic>Pseudomonas</italic> are an excellent option for use in agriculture (Santoyo <italic>et al</italic>., 2012).</p>
				<p>Biocontrol mediated by <italic>Pseudomonas</italic> strains is carried out by mechanisms such as direct antibiosis, competition for nutrients and for space, the promotion of plant growth and the induction of systemic resistance in plants (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Dimkić <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>). Diverse commercial products have been produced from <italic>Pseudomonas</italic> biomass, including BioJect Spot-Less™, Bio-Save® 10LP, AtEze™ and Cedemon (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Mark <italic>et al</italic>., 2006</xref>). The production of microbial biomass and metabolites in liquid culture media is crucial for the development of products based on bacterial strains such as <italic>Pseudomonas</italic>; however, the use of commercial culture media in the multiplication of microorganisms has a high cost. Therefore, the use of by-products or waste from the food industry is an option to reduce costs associated to the production and recovery of biological control agents, while waste management and conversion of usable products through the application of biotechnological technologies (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Khalil <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Sivakumar <italic>et al.,</italic> 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Suryanti <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>).</p>
				<p>One of the main residues of the food industry comes from the processing of maize (<italic>Zea mays</italic>), which is intimately related to Mexican culture. The tortilla represents the main food derived from the processing of maize (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Hellin <italic>et al.</italic>, 2010</xref>). In this regard, it is estimated that in Mexico, the current annual consumption of maize per capita is 120 kg (FAOSTAT, 2023). For the production of tortillas, maize grains undergo an alkaline thermal process called nixtamalization, which consists in the cooking of mature maize grains with lime, followed by grinding to obtain a dough and finally process (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Serna-Saldivar, 2021</xref>). Nixtamalization produces chemical and nutritional changes in the maize, and the main by-product of the nixtamalization process is the ‘nejayote,’ considered the alkaline water from the cooking of the maize; it is estimated that for every kilogram of maize processed, between 7 and 8 liters of nejayote are obtained (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Díaz-Montes <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>).</p>
				<p>The nejayote is considered one of the most effluent contaminants of the food industry. This liquid contains high concentrations of organic matter dissolved, corresponding to the structures of the maize grain that is detached during cooking (mainly the endosperm and the pericarp) and to the lime used in the process (DQO &gt; 28450 mg L-1). Additionally, the nejayote is characterized for having an alkaline pH with a value of over 10 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Meraz <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>). The nejayote represents an important</p>
				<p>source of fermentable sugars and compounds such as proteins, fibers, fats, etc. Due to this, the use of the nejayote in other processes or purification of components make it potentially applicable in the biotechnology industry (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Xu <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>).</p>
				<p>Nejayote has been proven to be usable as an alternative culture medium for the development of different microorganisms such as <italic>Arthrospira maxima</italic>, <italic>Aspergillus oryzae, Bacillus thuringiensis, Chlorella vulgaris, Lactobacillus casei, L. helveticus</italic></p>
				<p><italic>L. rhamnosus,</italic> as well as for the production of different secondary metabolites such as enzymes, pigments or antibiotics (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Bacame-Valenzuela <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>; LópezPacheco <italic>et al</italic>., 2019; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Ramírez-Romero <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>; Salazar-Magallon <italic>et al.</italic>, 2015). The aim of this work was to evaluate the use of nejayote as an alternative culture medium for the growth of <italic>Pseudomonas fluorescens</italic> NR113647 and for the production of secondary metabolites with antifungal activity.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="materials|methods">
				<title>Materials and Methods</title>
				<p>Biological material. The <italic>Pseudomonas fluorescens</italic> NR113647 strain, identified previously based on morphological, cultural and biochemical characteristics of the organism, was used. Molecular identification was carried out with the amplification and sequencing of rRNA 16s and alignment with the Gene Bank of the National Center for Biotechnological Information (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Rodríguez-Romero <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). The bacterium was cultivated in Agar <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">King B (KB) (King <italic>et al</italic>., 1954</xref>) for 7 days and incubated at room temperature (25 ± 2 °C) for later tests. The <italic>Aspergillus niger, Botrytis cinerea</italic> and <italic>Fusarium solani</italic> strains were isolated and provided by the Postharvest Technology Laboratory of the Biotic Products Development Center of the National Polytechnic Institute of Mexico (CEPROBI-IPN). Molecular identification was performed (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Harwood, 1996</xref>) in the Comprehensive Plant Safety Diagnose Laboratory (LADIFIT) of the Colegio de Postgraduados. The fungi were cultivated individually in a Potato-Dextrose-Agar medium (PDA, BD Bioxon, Mexico) for 4-7 days and incubated at room temperature (25 ± 2 °C) for later tests.</p>
				<p>Obtaining, conditioning of nejayote and formulation of the culture medium. The nejayote used was gathered from the maize processing companies located in La Laguna Ticomán, Mexico City (19° 31’ 12” N, 99° 07’ 45” W and altitude of 2248 masl) and later mixed. To eliminate sedimentable organic matter, the nejayote was centrifuged (Centrífuga Beckman Coulter® J2-MC, California, U.S.A.) at 10000 rpm for 15 min at a temperature of 4 °C, the supernatant was recovered and the pH was measured by electrode immersion (HANNA pHep5®, Romania). To produce the culture media, a completely randomized treatment design was conducted in a factorial arrangement, resulting in a total of four treatments; 1) Nejayote at a pH of</p>
				<p>6 (N6), 2) Nejayote at a pH of 12 (N12), 3) Nejayote at a pH of 6 with 10 g L-1 of glycerol (Ngly 6) and 4) Nejayote at a pH 12 with 10 g L-1 of glycerol (Ngly12). The pH of the nejayote was adjusted with NaOH or HCl 1 N as needed. A King B (KB) culture broth with a pH of 6 was used as a control.</p>
				<p><bold>pH and evaluation of the production of <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> biomass<italic>.</italic> 
</bold> The cultivation was carried out in 250 mL Erlenmeyer flasks with 100 mL of each one of the different treatments; three independent replicates were conducted for each treatment. The beakers were sterilized (Autoclave Yamato Scientific co. Ltd, SM510, Japan) for 15 min at 121 °C, incubated with 10 mL of <italic>Pseudomonas fluorescens</italic> NR113647 (106 UFC mL-1) and incubated at 25 ± 2 °C for 72 h shaking constantly (120 rpm). At the end of the cultivation, the pH of the culture media was determined by using an immersion electrode (HANNA pHep5®, Romania) and the biomass development of <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647 was evaluated using the plate count method. For this purpose, serial dilutions were carried out from each of the culture media, plated on standard plate count agar (ACS, BD Bioxon, Mexico) and incubated at 25 °C for 48 h.</p>
				<p><bold>Evaluation of the antifungal <italic>in vitro</italic> activity of the <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> extracts<italic>.</italic> 
</bold> To obtain the antifungal extracts, after incubation, each one of the treatments were centrifuged (Beckman Coulter® J2-MC Centrifuge, California, U.S.A.) for 15 min at 10015 xg at 4°C, the supernatant was extracted, a filtration was carried out using</p>
				<p>0.22 μm sterile membranes (Cole Palmer, U.S.A.). The antifungal effect of the extracts was determined using the poisoned culture medium technique (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Erhonyota <italic>et al.,</italic> 2023</xref>). For this, Potato-Dextrose-Agar (PDA, BD Bioxon, Mexico) was prepared at double the concentration recommended by the manufacturer (78 g L-1), then sterilized (Yamato Scientific co. Ltd, SM510 Autoclave, Japan) for 15 min at 121 °C. Later, the PDA medium (BD Bioxon, Mexico) was cooled to a temperature of 45 °C, mixed with the filtered supernatant of each one of the treatments in a proportion of 1:1, deposited in Petri dishes (90 x 15 mm) and left to solidify. PDA medium (BD Bioxon, Mexico) was used at the concentration recommended by the manufacturer (39 g L-1) as a control; five independent replicates were performed per treatment. In the middle of the Petri dishes, discs with a diameter of 5 mm were planted with the mycelia of each one of the fungi. The test finished when the growth of the fungi in the negative control reached the edge of the dish. The percentage of inhibition was calculated with the measurement of the diameter of the culture of each experimental unit, followed by the use of the formula: Inhibition (%) = [ (DaDb) / Da] x 100, where Da (mm) is the diameter of growth of the fungi in the dish used as a negative control and Db (mm) is the diameter of growth of the fungi in the test dish (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Al‐Hetar <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>).</p>
				<p><bold>Identification of the <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> antifungal metabolites<italic>.</italic> 
</bold> To identify the metabolites, the nejayote medium extract with the highest <italic>in vitro</italic> antifungal activity was used; the treatment was mixed with ethyl acetate in a 1:1 ratio and shaken for 2 h at 120 rpm. The aqueous fraction was discarded and the organic fraction evaporated at reduced pressure to obtain a dry raw extract. The dry extract was suspended in ethyl acetate at a concentration of 1 mg mL-1. The standards of phloroglucinol and phenazine (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, U.S.A.) were suspended in ethyl acetate at a concentration of 0.5 mg mL-1. Aliquots of 50 µL were taken and subjected to thin-layer chromatography (TLC; silica gel. 60 F254, 20 X 20, 0.5 mm, Merck and Co, Inc) using a hexane:acetone 3:2 solvent system. The plate was dried completely and the compounds were recovered and detected at 254 nm (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Suleimana <italic>et al</italic>., 2010</xref>).</p>
				<p>To identify hydrogen cyanide (HCN), the method described by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Verma <italic>et al</italic>. (2007</xref>) was used. Petri dishes containing soybean casein digest agar (AST, BD Bioxon, Mexico) were inoculated with 100 𝜇L of the extract from the nejayote medium with the highest antifungal activity, KB medium extract (positive control) and distilled water (negative control). Filter paper (Whatman no. 1) impregnated with 0.5% pyric acid and 2% sodium carbonate were placed on top of the dishes. The dishes were sealed and incubated at 30 °C for 24 h. After incubation, a color change in the filter paper indicated a positive HCN production.</p>
				<p>To identify siderophores, the method used was the CAS-agar plate assay method (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Schwyn and Neilands, 1987</xref>). The Chrome Azurol S (CAS)/Fe3+/ Hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide (HDTMA) complex was used as the indicator. To prepare 1 L of blue agar, 60.5 mg of CAS were dissolved in 50 mL of water mixed with 10 mL of Fe III (1 mM FeCl3·6H2O in 50 mL of 10 mM HCl),</p>
				<p>then mixed with 900 mL bacteriological agar (of 15 g L-1) adjusted to a pH of</p>
				<p>7. The dishes were inoculated with 1mL of the nejayote extract with the highest antifungal activity, 1 mL of KB extract (positive control) and 1 mL of distilled water (negative control). The dishes were incubated for 6 days. Siderophore production was classified visually in the culture medium in four categories: 1. No production,</p>
				<p>2. Low production (light yellow), 3. High production (moderate yellow) 4. Very high production (yellow).</p>
				<p>Statistical analysis. The experimental data were analyzed using the SAS® Studio</p>
				<p>3.82 software (SAS Institute, Cary, NC). The analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey’s test (*=p ≤ 0.05) were used to compare the means of the treatments.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="results|discussion">
				<title>Results and Discussion</title>
				<p><bold>pH and evaluation of the production of <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> biomass<italic>.</italic> 
</bold> Approximately 40 L of de nejayote were gathered, and the pH after centrifuging was 12.21, therefore it was adjusted to the corresponding values for each treatment. <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647 was able to grow in all the culture media of this study. The concentration of biomass produced in the different culture media was variable, where the highest cell development was obtained in the KB medium (control) and there were no statistical differences in relation to the media 3 and 4; the three media were supplemented with glycerol in their initial formulation. Media 1 and 2 (without the addition of glycerol) presented a lower concentration of biomass than the control and the media with nejayote, which contained added glycerol (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>). <italic>Pseudomonas</italic> has simple nutritional requirements due to its ability to degrade a large variety of organic substrates, from aromatic compounds to halogenated derivatives and other organic residues (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Sah <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). In this sense, the ability of the nejayote has been proven for use as a culture medium, since it contains fermentable sugars at an approximate concentration of 148.6 mg L-1 (GarcíaDepraect <italic>et al</italic>., 2017). On the other hand, <italic>Pseudomonas</italic> is able to use glycerol as a source of carbo for the production of biomass (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Poblete-Castro <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). Furthermore, <italic>Pseudomonas</italic> has been observed to produce a greater concentration of biomass in the media containing glycerol as a source of carbon in comparison to those with other carbon sources such as glucose or succinate (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Nikel <italic>et al</italic>., 2014</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t4">
						<label>Table 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Evaluation of the growth of <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647 and pH values of</title>
						</caption>
						<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Treatment</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Culture media</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Biomass (Ln UFC mL<sup>-1</sup>)</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Final pH</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Control</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">KB6</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">20.52±0.03 a</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">6.93±0.05 a</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">1</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">N6</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">19.55±0.17 b</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">8.40±0.06 b</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">2</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">N12</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">19.72±0.25 b</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">8.46±0.06 b</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">3</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">Ngly6</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">20.17±0.11 a</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">8.02±0.09 c</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">4</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">Ngly12</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">20.22±0.03 a</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">8.03±0.03 c</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN4">
								<p>Results expressed with the mean ± standard deviation for each sample (n = 3).</p>
							</fn>
							<fn id="TFN5">
								<p>*Different letters in each column indicate a significant difference (*=p ≤ 0.05)</p>
							</fn>
							<fn id="TFN6">
								<p>according to Tukey’s test.</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>The pH values varied during cultivation in all the culture media used. In the treatments that began with a pH of 6.0, an increase was observed in the pH value, whereas in the cultures that began with a pH of 12, it decreased (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 1</xref>). In media</p>
				<p>1 and 2, in which there was only nejayote, no statistical differences were observed (*=p ≤ 0.05). The pH value between treatments 3 and 4 displayed no statistical differences either (*=p ≤ 0.05). On the other hand, the culture medium used as a control maintained a low and significantly different pH in comparison with the other treatments (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 1</xref>).</p>
				<p><italic>P. fluorescens,</italic> and bacterial cells in general, crucially depend on the pH of the medium in which they develop. pH values closer to 7 are adequate for most bacteria. The self-regulation of pH, which includes the detection and adaptation to external pH, is an important mechanism for microbial development. In this regard, numerous adaptations have been identified that contribute to homeostasis in an alkaline pH (Sánchez-Clemente, 2018). When bacteria are found in alkaline conditions (pH&lt;10), the active transport of protons or the motor force of protons is crucial for their adaptation to their ecological niche; the mechanism includes high levels of transporters and enzymes that promote the capture and retention of protons (ATP synthase and proton/monovalent cation antiporters). Additionally, metabolic changes take place, leading to increased acid production and changes in the in the cell surface layers that contribute to protein retention in the cytoplasm (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Krulwich <italic>et al.,</italic> 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Padan <italic>et al</italic>., 2005</xref>). Tolerance to the alkaline medium and the reduction of the initial pH (from 12 to 8, approximately) is important, considering that in Mexico it is established that the permissible pH range for wastewater discharged into urban or municipal sewer systems is between 5.5 and 10.0 (NOM-002-ECOL-1996). Therefore, nejayote should not be deposited in the municipal sewer system, but rather, on the contrary, it could be used as a culture medium for the development of biomass and the production of metabolites, considering that the final culture broth used would have a pH value in accordance with Mexican regulations and could be discarded.</p>
				<p><bold>
 <italic>In vitro</italic> evaluation of the antifungal activity of the <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> extracts<italic>.</italic> 
</bold> The incubation period, until the fungi in the negative control (PDA, BD Bioxon, Mexico) reached the rim of the Petri dish, was of 9 days for <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> and <italic>Botrytis cinerea</italic>, whereas for <italic>Fusarium solani</italic> it lasted 14 days. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Table 2</xref> shows the growth (mm) and inhibition values (%) generated by the different treatments in fungi.</p>
				<p>The fungi used in this study and cultivated in a PDA medium had a radial growth. The extracts obtained from the KB6 medium (positive control) produced the highest levels and percentages of <italic>in vitro</italic> inhibition of all treatments. <italic>Botrytis cinerea</italic> was the most sensitive, since its growth was inhibited by 100%. Other studies observed different inhibition values ranging from 60% up to 75-99%, with extracts obtained from a nutritional broth (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Mikani <italic>et al.</italic>, 2008</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Wallace <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t5">
						<label>Table 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Evaluation of the antifungal effect of the extracts obtained from <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647, on the mycelial growth and the inhibition of <italic>Fusarium solani, Botrytis cinerea</italic> and <italic>Aspergillus niger.</italic></title>
						</caption>
						<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th rowspan="2" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Culture media</th>
									<th colspan="2" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">F. solani</th>
									<th colspan="2" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">B. cinerea</th>
									<th colspan="2" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">A. niger</th>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Growth (mm)</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Inhibition (%)</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Growth (mm)</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Inhibition (%)</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Growth (mm)</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Inhibition (%)</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">PDA</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">90.0±0.0 a</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">0.0</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">90.0±0.0 a</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">0.0</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">90.0±0.0 a</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">0.00</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">KB6</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">30.5±1.4 b</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">66.0</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">0.0±0.0 e</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">100.0</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">48.6±2.5 d</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">45.9</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">N6</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">90.0±0.0 a</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">0.0</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">90.0±0.0 a</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">0.0</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">90.0±0.0 a</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">0.00</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">N12</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">31.9±1.4 b</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">64.5</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">21.0±4.5 d</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">76.6</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">66.0±3.6 c</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">26.5</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Ngly6</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">90.0±0.0 a</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">0.0</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">60.9±1.6 b</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">32.3</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">90.0±0.0 a</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">0.00</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Ngly12</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">67.4±2.3 c</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">25.0</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">27.3±2.2 c</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">69.5</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">76.9±2.16 b</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">14.5</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN7">
								<p>Negative control=PDA. Positive control=KB6. Results expressed with the mean ± standard deviation for each sample (n = 5). Different letters in each column indicate a significant difference (*=p ≤ 0.05) according to Tukey’s test.</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>In the treatments of the positive control for the <italic>Fusarium solani</italic> strain, an inhibition of 66% was obtained, in comparison with other studies in which <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> strains displayed an inhibition ranging from 43% to complete inhibition (100%) of the mycelial growth of <italic>Fusarium</italic> spp<italic>.</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Al-Fadhal, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Trejo-Raya <italic>et al.,</italic> 2021</xref>). The <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> strain developed the greatest growth, with an inhibition of 45%. However, other studies have reported that <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> displayed an inhibition of 20 to 30% in comparison with the control (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Akocak <italic>et al.,</italic> 2015</xref>) and a mycelial growth of up to 78.77% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Deshmukh, 2015</xref>).</p>
				<p>The extracts obtained from the N6 medium did not inhibit the growth of any of the fungi evaluated <italic>in vitro</italic> in this study. This behavior was similar for the extracts obtained from the Ngly6 medium, which did not inhibit the growth of neither <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> nor <italic>Fusarium solani,</italic> although for <italic>Botrytis cinerea</italic>, an inhibition of approximately 32% was recorded. On the other hand, the extracts obtained from Ngly12 generated inhibition values ranging from 14 to 25% for <italic>Aspergillu niger</italic> and <italic>Fusarium solani</italic>, although an inhibition of nearly 70% was observed in <italic>Botrytis cinerea</italic>. The extracts obtained from N12 for the fungi <italic>Botrytis cinerea</italic> and <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> generated numerically similar inhibition values, but significantly different to those obtained with the extracts of the positive control (KB6). For the fungus <italic>Fusarium solani</italic> there were no statistical differences between the KB6 and N12 media<italic>.</italic></p>
				<p>Because the composition of the nejayote media is basically the same in all treatments, the results of this study may suggest that the differences in the inhibition effect is linked to the initial pH values and the addition of glycerol to the culture media. Saleh-Lakha <italic>et al.</italic> (2009) determined that the genic expression values for</p>
				<p>the production of metabolites by <italic>Pseudomonas mandelii</italic> were 539 and 6190 times lower in media with a pH of 5 than for pH values of 8. On the other hand, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Zhou <italic>et al.</italic> (2012</xref>) observed that for a <italic>Pseudomonas</italic> strain to express antifungal activity, the pH value of the culture medium must be of at least 10. The genes involved in the production of metabolites are directly related with the transcription of genes involved in the protection against stress, as well as damage in the cell membrane and the cell wall. These genes are a part of the global regulatory system for the activation of the synthesis of antibiotics and cyanide (GaC) and the secondary metabolite repressor system (RsM), which are positively influenced by environmental signals, in which pH values of 8 stand out (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Anderson <italic>et al.,</italic> 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Xue <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>). Regarding the addition of glycerol to the medium, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Nikel <italic>et al</italic>. (2014</xref>) concluded that the growth of <italic>Pseudomonas</italic> in the presence of glycerol alters the transcription of around 104 genes that codify metabolic and non-metabolic activities, which may be involved in the production of antifungal metabolites. In the case of this study, it is probable that the cultivation of <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647 at a pH of 12 may increase the expression of the production of metabolites related to biocontrol.</p>
				<p>Identification of the metabolites involved in the antifungal activity. The thinlayer chromatography of the dry <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647 raw extracts cultivated in the N12 culture medium displayed the presence of at least five compounds, which were compared with the standards of phenazine and phloroglucinol (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Table 3</xref>). The elution paths of the components could indicate that the dry raw extract contains at least one antifungal compound that may be a derivative of phloroglucinol and which corresponds to stain 1. Phloroglucinol is a metabolite with numerous derivatives and is widely known for its antifungal capacity. Some</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t6">
						<label>Table 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Retention factors of the <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647 extracts obtained from treatment N12, comparison against standard compounds.</title>
						</caption>
						<table border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th style="text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Sustancia</th>
									<th style="text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Rf</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left;">Mancha 1</td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">0.20</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left;">Mancha 2</td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">0.31</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left;">Mancha 3</td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">0.47</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left;">Mancha 4</td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">0.52</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left;">Mancha 5</td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">0.92</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left; font-style:italic">Fenazina</td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">0.83</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left; font-style:italic">Fluoroglucinol</td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">0.21</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN8">
								<p>*Standards [0,5 mg mL-1] and <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647 extracts [1 mg mL-1]. Hexane-acetone system (2:1). These compounds were detected using UV at 254 nm.</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p><italic>Pseudomonas</italic> strains produce 2,4-diacetylfluoroglucinol and its intermediates monoacetylphluoroglucinol and phloroglucinol (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Biessy and Filion, 2021</xref>). On the other hand, stain 5 is the nearest to the phenazine standard, which may indicate the presence of a derivative of this component, since the genus <italic>Pseudomonas</italic> is known to produce phenazine-1-carboxylic acid and 2-hydroxyphenazine, which are metabolites with antifungal activity against phytopathogenic fungi (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Castaldi <italic>et al.,</italic> 2021</xref>). Despite not being able to identify all the metabolites present in the dry raw extract, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Zhang <italic>et al.</italic> (2020</xref>) observed that <italic>Pseudomonas</italic> harbors genes involved in the production of more than 10 metabolites, such as diacetylphluoroglucinol, pyoverdines, pyochelins, pyrrolnitrin, HCN, etc., which could correspond to the rest of the eluted components in the thin-layer chromatography assay. However, the results might not be entirely extrapolated, and in-depths studies are required for the determination of metabolites in this study.</p>
				<p>To identify the production of HCN (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 1</xref>), in the control dish (A), no color change was observed. The extracts obtained from the KB6 medium (control) displayed an orange color on the periphery, indicating that <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647 produces HCN in this culture medium. The plate of the extract from the N12 medium showed a light orange-yellow color, so it can be assumed that there is also a presence of HCN, though in smaller amounts compared to KB6. The production of HCN by microorganisms plays an important role in inhibiting the growth of various fungi and other biotic phytopathogenic agents, including weeds, insects and nematodes. It has a broad spectrum, since it directly interferes with cell respiration in eukaryotic pathogens, so it can be widely used as a biocontrol metabolite (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Sehrawat <italic>et al.,</italic> 2022</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f3">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Identification of the production of hydrogen cyanide in a Petri dish. Negative control of distilled water (A), extracts free of <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647 cells in a KB6 medium (B) and extracts free of <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647 cells in a N12 medium (C).</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-03-RMEXFIT24053-gf3.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Regarding the production of siderophores, according to the trial in CAS-agar plates described in the methodology (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 2</xref>), no changes in color were observed in the Petri dish with sterile distilled water. In the KB6 medium, an intense yellow color was observed that displays a large proportion of these metabolites. In the case of the N12 medium, a pale-yellow color was observed, which displays a limited production of siderophores. These metabolites are reported as one of the main biological control compounds with an antifungal effect produced by <italic>P. fluorescens</italic>, which allow the acquisition of Fe from the medium or colonization site and thus maintain the normal growth of the bacterium (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Rizzi <italic>et al.,</italic> 2019</xref>). However, this study showed that the conditions of the N12 medium did not promote the production of siderophores, due to the low production in comparison with the control and therefore were not the main biocontrol metabolites.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f4">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Identification of siderophores, Petri dish with distilled water as a control (A) and extracts free of <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647 cells (B) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Trejo-Raya <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>) and extracts free of <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647 cells in a N12 medium (C).</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-03-RMEXFIT24053-gf4.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>The <italic>Pseudomonas fluorescens</italic> complex includes more than fifty species of taxonomically assigned strains, most of which have potential applications for biocontrol. A high proportion of these strains have not been completely sequenced and display a high molecular homology. In addition, new species are frequently being described (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Garrido-Sanz <italic>et al.,</italic> 2016</xref>); therefore, the results of this investigation cannot be directly correlated for all <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> populations. However, the use of <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647 and this culture medium proposed could be useful to value the metabolisms of other strains and/or genetic populations of the <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> complex<italic>.</italic></p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusions</title>
				<p>This study investigated the potential use of nejayote as an alternative culture medium for <italic>Pseudomonas fluorescens</italic> NR113647<italic>.</italic> The strain was able to grow in all treatments containing nejayote; among the extracts evaluated, the Nejayote extract with a pH of 12 displayed the best results, since it inhibited the mycelial growth <italic>in vitro</italic> of the fungi <italic>Botrytis cinérea</italic>, <italic>Fusarium solani</italic> and <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> by 76.66, 64.55 and 26.56%, respectively. In the analysis of antifungal metabolites of the Nejayote extract with a pH of 12, the production of hydrogen cyanide and siderophores was identified, as well as the possible production of compounds derived from phenazine and phloroglucinol. The valorization of the nejayote and its use at a pH of 12 without the addition of glycerol represents a viable and ecofriendly alternative for its use as a culture medium for <italic>P. fluorescens</italic> NR113647 in the production of biomass and extracts containing secondary metabolites of interest in the agriculture industry for the control of diseases caused by phytopathogenic fungi.</p>
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