<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article
  PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.1 20151215//EN" "https://jats.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/1.1/JATS-journalpublishing1.dtd">
<article article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="es" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">rmfi</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Revista mexicana de fitopatología</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Rev. mex. fitopatol</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">0185-3309</issn>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2007-8080</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedad Mexicana de Fitopatología A.C.</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.18781/R.MEX.FIT.2405-5</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artículo Científico</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title><italic>Fusarium solani</italic> asociado a <italic>Cedrela odorata</italic> y <italic>Swietenia macrophylla</italic> y su sensibilidad a fungicidas convencionales</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Caamal-Eb</surname>
						<given-names>Lorenza</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Cristóbal-Alejo</surname>
						<given-names>Jairo</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Tun-Suárez</surname>
						<given-names>José María</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Reyes-Ramírez</surname>
						<given-names>Arturo</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Uc-Várguez</surname>
						<given-names>Alberto</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"><sup>5</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>García-Díaz</surname>
						<given-names>Silvia Edith</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"><sup>6</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Tecnológico Nacional de México/Instituto Tecnológico de Conkal, Av. Tecnológico s/n. Conkal, Yucatán, México. </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Tecnológico Nacional de México</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Tecnológico Nacional de México</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<state>Yucatán</state>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Tecnológico Nacional de México/Instituto Tecnológico de Conkal, Av. Tecnológico s/n. Conkal, Yucatán, México. </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Tecnológico Nacional de México</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Tecnológico Nacional de México</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<state>Yucatán</state>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>3</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Tecnológico Nacional de México/Instituto Tecnológico de Conkal, Av. Tecnológico s/n. Conkal, Yucatán, México. </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Tecnológico Nacional de México</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Tecnológico Nacional de México</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<state>Yucatán</state>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4">
				<label>4</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Tecnológico Nacional de México/Instituto Tecnológico de Conkal, Av. Tecnológico s/n. Conkal, Yucatán, México. </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Tecnológico Nacional de México</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Tecnológico Nacional de México</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<state>Yucatán</state>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff5">
				<label>5</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Tecnológico Nacional de México/Instituto Tecnológico de Conkal, Av. Tecnológico s/n. Conkal, Yucatán, México. Centro de Investigación y Asistencia en Tecnología y Diseño del Estado de Jalisco A.C. Tablaje Catastral 31264 Km 5.5 Carretera Sierra Papacal-Chuburna Puerto Parque Científico Tecnológico de Yucatán CP: 97302 Mérida, Yucatán; </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Tecnológico Nacional de México</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Tecnológico Nacional de México</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<state>Yucatán</state>
					<postal-code>97302</postal-code>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff6">
				<label>6</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidad Autónoma Chapingo, División de Ciencias Forestales. Km 38.5 carretera México-Texcoco. C.P. 56230. Texcoco, Estado de México, México. </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidad Autónoma Chapingo</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Autónoma Chapingo</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<postal-code>56230</postal-code>
					<state>Estado de México</state>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>19</day>
				<month>02</month>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<season>Sep-Dec</season>
				<year>2024</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>42</volume>
			<issue>3</issue>
			<elocation-id>RMEXFIT24055</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>01</day>
					<month>05</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>01</day>
					<month>07</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
					<license-p>Este es un artículo publicado en acceso abierto bajo una licencia Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumen</title>
				<sec>
					<title><bold>Antecedentes <italic>/</italic> Objetivo.</bold></title>
					<p>En el estado de Yucatán, México, en los últimos cin- co años se produjeron 10 millones de plantas forestales para diversas acciones de conservación y restauración. Las principales limitantes en la producción de estas plantas en vivero, son las enfermedades inducidas por <italic>Fusarium</italic> spp., que causan pudriciones de tallo y raíz y pérdidas de producción de plantas hasta el 50 %. El objetivo del trabajo fue identificar el agente causal asociado con la pudrición y ne- crosis de tallo y raíz de cedro (<italic>Cedrela odorata</italic>) y caoba (<italic>Swietenia macrophylla</italic>) y su sensibilidad <italic>in vitro</italic> a fungicidas convencionales.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Materiales y Métodos. </title>
					<p>Se colectaron plantas de <italic>C. odorata</italic> y <italic>S. macrophylla</italic> de tres y seis semanas de germinación, respectivamente, con síntomas de necrosis y pudrición indicados; de donde se obtuvieron cinco aislados fúngicos y se identificaron morfológica y molecularmente. Se determinó <italic>in vitro</italic> por el método de microdilución, la Concentración Mínima Inhibitoria (CMI) de esporas y la Concentración Mínima Letal (CML) de seis fungicidas convencionales de aplicación recurrente en la región (Procloraz, Carbendazim, Benomilo, Fosetyl Al, Captan y Mancozeb) y validar su efectividad y viabilidad en el manejo de esta problemática.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Resultados. </title>
					<p>La morfología y secuencias moleculares de los aislados, fueron similares a las reportadas para <italic>Fusarium solani</italic>. La CMI de las esporas de <italic>F. solani</italic> para Procloraz, Carbendazim, Benomilo, Captan y Mancozeb fueron de 2.44. 11.38, 14.06, 7.81 y 7.81 ppm, respectivamente; Fosetyl Al, no inhibió la germinación de esporas ya que se observó crecimiento micelial normal del hongo en las concentraciones evaluadas.</p>
				</sec>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
				<title>Palabras clave:</title>
				<kwd>cedro</kwd>
				<kwd>caoba</kwd>
				<kwd>pudrición de raíces</kwd>
				<kwd>vivero</kwd>
				<kwd>control químico.</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="6"/>
				<table-count count="4"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="43"/>
				<page-count count="0"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introducción</title>
			<p>En México, se produjeron en los últimos cinco años aproximadamente 1,000 millones de plantas forestales, éstas incluyeron especies de clima árido, templado y tropical y, de esta producción, el estado de Yucatán produjo aproximadamente 10 millones para diversas acciones de reforestación o restauración. Las principales especies producidas fueron: <italic>C. odorata</italic>, <italic>S. macrophylla</italic>, <italic>Tabebuia rosea</italic>, <italic>Brosimun alicastrum</italic>, <italic>Cordia dodecandra</italic>, principalmente (SNIGF, 2021). Entre los factores limitantes en el proceso de producción, se encuentran las enfermedades de pudri- ciones en tallo y raíz, causadas por <italic>Fusarium</italic> spp. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Kisekka, 2022</xref>). De acuerdo con la información proporcionada por los viveristas, las pérdidas de producción oscilan entre el 30 y 50 %. </p>
			<p>El género <italic>Fusarium</italic> cuenta con aproximadamente 1,779 especies, con distri- bución cosmopolita (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Sun <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). Son ubicuos en la naturaleza, ya que pue- den tolerar cualquier condición ambiental. Se les puede encontrar en el aire, agua, suelo, plantas y restos vegetales. Una gran cantidad de sus especies son patógenas de plantas, productoras de micotoxinas y, las cuales inducen una amplia gama de enfermedades que afectan a varios cultivos. Los síntomas que ocasiona incluyen: pudrición de raíz y tallo, cancros, marchitez vascular, pudrición de frutos y semi- llas, principalmente (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Ekwomadu y Mwanza, 2023</xref>).</p>
			<p>En viveros de regiones templadas, caracterizados por su clima húmedo o subhú- medo con temperaturas promedio entre 12 y 18 °C y precipitación promedio anual entre 600 y 1500 mm (GeoEnciclopedia, 2022), su vegetación la constituyen bos- ques de pinos, de encinos y de pinos-encinos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Galicia <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>); Al respecto, <italic>F</italic>. <italic>circinatum</italic> en plantas de pinos, es el causante de la principal enfermedad conocida como “secadera”; esta enfermedad se caracteriza por la pudrición de raíces, lo que disminuye la calidad de la planta, con pérdidas de producción de hasta un 40 % (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">García-Díaz <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>). En regiones tropicales, donde la temperatura es mayor a 18 °C y la precipitación anual oscila entre 800 y 4000 mm (GeoEnciclopedia, 2022) y su vegetación está compuesto por diversas especies de tipo perennifolias, subperennifolias, caducifolias y subcaducifolias (Secretaría de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales, 2017), se identificó a <italic>Fusarium</italic> sp. como responsable de las pudriciones de tallo en <italic>Eucalyptus pellita</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Arsensi y Mardji, 2021</xref>) y a <italic>F. sola- ni</italic> como agente causal de pudriciones de raíces en <italic>Tectona grandis</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Kiran <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). </p>
			<p>En México, es escasa la información referente al diagnóstico y etiología de los agentes causales de enfermedades fúngicas observadas en viveros forestales tropi- cales; así como, de los métodos empleados para su control. En la actualidad, el con- trol de estas enfermedades en plantas forestales que progresan en viveros es a base de fungicidas sintéticos, debido a su rápida respuesta para controlar al fitopatógeno y a su fácil aplicación (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Kisekka, 2022</xref>). Aunque en ocasiones, las aplicaciones se realizan sin éxito, ya que no se realizan estudios previos de sensibilidad <italic>in vitro</italic> e <italic>in vivo</italic> a los fungicidas locales disponibles.</p>
			<p>En la producción de plantas en los viveros, la buena sanidad es la base de todo proyecto de producción o de reforestación, ya que al establecer en campo plantas enfermas, éstas tienen menores probabilidades de sobrevivir y además, se convier- ten en fuentes de inóculos para plantas sanas. Por lo tanto, para establecer un mé- todo de control para resolver los problemas fitosanitarios que afectan a las plantas que se producen en vivero, es indispensable conocer los agentes causales y, este conocimiento permite diseñar estrategias de control eficientes y la aplicación de productos específicos para su manejo, y con ello también disminuir la contamina- ción ambiental. Debido a esto, el objetivo del trabajo fue identificar el agente causal asociado con la pudrición y necrosis de tallo y raíz de <italic>C. odorata</italic> y <italic>S. macrophylla</italic> y su sensibilidad <italic>in vitro</italic> a fungicidas convencionales.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="materials|methods">
			<title>Materiales y Métodos</title>
			<p>Colecta de las muestras. Durante el año 2023 en el vivero México Primero locali- zado a 88° 58´48.15¨ W y 19° 59´10.56¨ N, en el municipio de Tzucacab, Yucatán se colectaron plantas de <italic>C. odorata</italic> y <italic>S. macrophylla</italic> de tres y seis semanas poste- riores a la germinación, respectivamente y que mostraban síntomas de necrosis y pudrición de la base de tallo y raíz (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>). Las muestras se guardaron en bolsas de papel estraza para después colocarlas dentro bolsas de plástico, se etiquetaron y se trasladaron al Laboratorio de Fitopatología del Tecnológico Nacional de México, Campus Conkal, para el aislamiento e identificación del (los) agente (s) causal (es).</p>
			<p>Aislamientos a partir de síntomas. Los tallos y las raíces de las plantas con sín- tomas de necrosis y pudrición se lavaron con agua de la llave para eliminar los residuos del sustrato. Del tejido dañado se realizaron cortes de aproximadamente 0.5 a 1 cm<sup>2</sup>. Para eliminar contaminantes externos, se desinfestaron con hipoclorito de sodio al 2 % de producto comercial durante 2 minutos. Posteriormente, se en- juagaron tres veces con agua destilada estéril por dos minutos en cada enjuague y se secaron con papel absorbente estéril; por último, se colocaron cinco fragmentos de aproximadamente 0.5 a 1 cm<sup>2</sup> en cajas Petri con medio de cultivo a base de Papa </p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f1">
					<label>Figura 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Plantas con síntomas de necrosis y pudrición en tallo y raíz. <bold>A, B</bold> y <bold>C)</bold> Plantas de <italic>Cedrela odorata</italic>. <bold>D, E y F)</bold> Plantas de <italic>Swietenia macrophylla</italic>.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-03-RMEXFIT24055-gf1.gif"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>Dextrosa Agar (PDA) y se incubaron a 28±2 °C. A las 48 h, se observó desarrollo de micelio y se reaislaron en cajas Petri con medio de cultivo PDA. Los crecimien- tos miceliales reaislados se purificaron mediante puntas de hifa en crecimiento y posteriormente a partir de esporas se realizaron cultivos monospóricos (Ríos-Her- nández <italic>et al</italic>., 2021), de los cuales, se obtuvieron tres aislados de <italic>C. odorata</italic> y dos aislados de <italic>S. macrophylla</italic>.</p>
			<p>Identificación morfológica. Para la identificación morfológica de los aislados fún- gicos a nivel de género, se tomaron con una aguja de disección estéril, muestras de micelio de aproximadamente 5 mm de diámetro, se depositaron en cajas Petri con medio PDA y se incubaron a 28±2 °C, se monitorearon hasta que presentaron las estructuras de reproducción y con ello se consideraron las características de los crecimientos como: tipo de micelio, color de los aislados, tipo y forma de esporas y cuerpos fructíferos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Barnett y Hunter 1998</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Leslie <italic>et al</italic>., 2006</xref>). Se realizaron preparaciones semipermanentes y se observaron las características morfológicas en un microscopio (Axiostar Plus, Carl Zeiss), provisto con reglilla de medición ocular, previamente calibrada para cada objetivo según el caso, y se midió la longitud y el ancho (n=100) de macroconidios y microconidios.</p>
			<p>Identificación molecular. Considerando que los cinco aislados presentaron carac- terísticas morfológicas similares, se eligió aleatoriamente un aislado de cada hospe- dante para la identificación molecular y consistió en la extracción de ADN de cada hongo mediante el Kit DNeasy (QUIAGEN). A partir del ADN extraído se amplificó el espaciador transcrito interno (ITS) mediante la reacción en cadena de la polimerasa (PCR), utilizando los oligonucleótidos universales ITS4 (5’-TCCTCCGCTTATT- GATATGC-3’) e ITS5 (5’-GGAAGTAAAAGTCGTAACAAGG-3’) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">White <italic>et al</italic>.,1990</xref>) y el factor de elongación-1α con los oligonucleótidos EF-1 (5′-ATGGGTA- AGGARGACAAGAC-3′) y EF-2 (5′-GGARGTACCAGTSATCATGTT-3′) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Ríos-Hernández <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>), con las siguientes condiciones de amplificación: Desna- turalización inicial por 30 s a 94 °C, seguido de 38 ciclos (desnaturalización por 30 s a 90 °C, alineación por 45 s a 58 °C y extensión por 1 min a 72 °C) y con extensión final por 5 min a 72 °C (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Uc-Várguez <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>), la amplificación se realizó en un termociclador AB (Applied Biosystems) y los productos amplificados fueron analizados mediante electroforesis en gel de agarosa al 1 %. Los productos de PCR se enviaron a purificar y secuenciar a Macrogen Genome Center ubicado en Seoul, República de Korea. Las secuencias resultantes fueron editadas con el Software BioEdit (versión, 7.7.1. disponible en internet) y posteriormente fueron comparadas con secuencias reportadas en la base de datos del National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI, 2024), usando la herramienta BLAST, dispo- nible en internet.</p>
			<p>Concentración Mínima Inhibitoria de Germinación de Esporas y Concentra- ción Mínima Letal. Para estimar la actividad antifúngica de seis ingredientes acti- vos de fungicidas convencionales (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Cuadro 1</xref>) sobre los aislados fúngicos de <italic>C. odo- rata</italic> y <italic>S. macrophylla</italic>, se determinó la Concentración Mínima Inhibitoria (CMI) de la germinación de esporas. Mediante el método de microdilución en microplacas de poliestireno estéril de 96 pozos con medio de cultivo Papa Dextrosa al doble de su concentración (CLSI, 2017; CLSI, 2020). Se añadió a cada pozo de la microplaca 100 μL de caldo Papa Dextrosa y, a los pozos de la fila utilizados como control negativo, se agregó 100 μL de agua destilada estéril. En seguida, en cada pozo de la primera columna se incorporaron los fungicidas a evaluar, así, a los pozos de la primera columna, se le añadió 100 μL de la solución fungicida correspondiente, se mezclaron y se tomó 100 μL de la mezcla de cada pozo y se transfirieron en los pozos de la segunda columna y, así continuamente, de modo que la concentración</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t1">
					<label>Cuadro 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Fungicidas convencionales evaluados sobre la germinación de esporas y el crecimiento micelial de <italic>Fusarium solani</italic> aislado de <italic>Cedrela odorata</italic> y <italic>Swietenia macrophylla</italic>.</title>
					</caption>
					<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Fungicida (i. a) </th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Grupo de fungicida </th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Tipo de fungicida </th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Dosis inicial máxima (ppm) </th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:center">Procloraz </td>
								<td style="text-align:center">Imidazol </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">Sistémico </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">625 </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:center">Carbendazim </td>
								<td style="text-align:center">Bencimidazol </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">Sistémico </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">364 </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:center">Benomilo </td>
								<td style="text-align:center">Bencimidazol </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">Sistémico </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">225 </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:center">Fosetyl Al </td>
								<td style="text-align:center">Fosfonato de etilo </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">Sistémico </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">1500 </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:center">Captan </td>
								<td style="text-align:center">Ftalimida </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">Contacto </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">1000 </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:center">Mancozeb </td>
								<td style="text-align:center">Ditiocarbamato </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">Contacto </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">1000 </td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>de la solución fungicida quedó al 50 % desde el primer pozo. Al finalizar las di- luciones, se adicionaron a cada pozo 100 μL con esporas del hongo previamente contabilizadas en una cámara de Neubauer a una concentración ajustada de 1 x 10<sup>5</sup> esporas mL<sup>-1</sup>; así mismo, a los pozos de la fila utilizados como control positivo es- tuvieron provistos de caldo papa dextrosa y esporas del hongo en las concentracio- nes descritas, de esta manera cada pozo tuvo un volumen de 200 μL y, por último, el contenido de cada pozo se mezcló (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Harčárová <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Ríos-Hernández <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). Las microplacas se incubaron a 29 °C; el ensayo se estableció en un diseño experimental completamente al azar con cuatro repeticiones, con la información que se obtuvo se realizaron análisis de varianza previa transformación de datos con la instrucción en el paquete estadístico de SAS ver. 9.4 (y=arsin(sqrt(y/100)), las comparaciones de medias se realizaron por el método de Tukey (<italic>p</italic>≤0.05). Se evaluó la inhibición y la germinación de esporas del hongo a las 24, 48 y 72 horas me- diante el uso de rezasurina (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Sharma <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Balouri <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Kumar <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>; Ríos-Hernández <italic>et al</italic>., 2021) como indicador de oxidación-reducción para verificar la viabilidad de las esporas por un cambio de tinción azul (no fluorescen- te) a rosa-rojo (fluorescente) como resultado de la reducción química del medio de cultivo por el crecimiento celular del microorganismo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Elshikh <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Caso <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). Después de dos horas de incubación se determinó la CMI de cada fungicida, el cual, consistió en la concentración más baja del fungicida que evitó el crecimiento micelial del hongo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Kowalska-Krochmal y Dudek-Wicher, 2021</xref>). Posteriormente se calculó la Concentración Mínima Letal (CML), definido como la concentración más baja del fungicida en la que no existe crecimiento del hongo 24 h después de un subcultivo en medio libre de fungicida (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Perczak <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>; Harčárová <italic>et al</italic>., 2021; Ríos-Hernández <italic>et al</italic>., 2021); la CML se determinó por triplicado en medio de cultivo PDA, para ello se utilizó 5 μL del contenido fúngico que se inhibió a partir de la CMI y cuatro concentraciones mayores a la CMI y se incubaron a 29 °C; a las 24 horas se observó la presencia o ausencia de crecimiento fúngico, después de este periodo, cuando se observó crecimiento fúngico se con- sideró al producto con actividad fungistático y la ausencia de crecimiento como actividad fungicida (Ríos-Hernández <italic>et al</italic>., 2021).</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="results|discussion">
			<title>Resultados y Discusión</title>
			<p>Identificación morfológica. Las características morfológicas de los cinco aislados provenientes de necrosis, pudrición de tallo y de raíz de <italic>C. odorata</italic> y <italic>S. macrophy- lla</italic> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>), mostraron micelio septado y liso en los primeros cuatro y cinco días de crecimiento y se volvió algodonoso de tonalidades blanco a crema pálido a partir de los 8 días. En monofiálides largas se produjeron abundantes microconidios hia- linos, ovalados y fusiformes generalmente de cero a un septo de 8-25 μm de largo</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f2">
					<label>Figura 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>A y D) Vista de <italic>Fusarium solani</italic> de 14 días de desarrollo aislado de <italic>Cedrela odorata</italic> y <italic>Swietenia macrophylla,</italic> B) Micelio septado y microconidios de <italic>F. solani</italic>, C) Macroconidios (3-4 septos) y microconidios (0-1 septo) de <italic>F. solani</italic> observadas al objetivo 100X, E) Macroconidios y microconidios observadas a 40X y F) Esporodo- quios</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-03-RMEXFIT24055-gf2.gif"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>y de 3.5-5 μm de ancho; esporodoquios de forma irregular de color crema pálido y abundantes macroconidios hialinos, robustos poco curvados de tres a cuatro septos de 24-36 μm de largo y de 4-5 μm de ancho; se observaron clamidosporas simples y dobles de forma globosa y pared gruesa. Las características de estos aislados co- incidieron con los descritos para <italic>Fusarium solani</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Leslie <italic>et al</italic>., 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Hafizi <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Omar <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Kurt <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>).</p>
			<p>Identificación molecular. Las secuencias resultantes de los fragmentos amplifi- cados de la región ITS (600 pb) de los dos aislados provenientes de <italic>C</italic>. <italic>odorata</italic> y <italic>S</italic>. <italic>macrophylla,</italic> al compararlas con secuencias registradas en la base de datos del NCBI, mostraron una similitud del 99.26 y 99.79 %, respectivamente, con secuen- cias correspondientes a <italic>F. solani</italic> y <italic>F. falciforme</italic>. Por consiguiente, el análisis de las secuencias de los fragmentos de los genes que codifican al factor de elongación- 1α (700 pb) de los mismos aislados presentaron una similitud de 99.83 y 95.73%, respectivamente, con secuencias de <italic>F. solani</italic> y <italic>F. falciforme</italic>. Considerando las características morfológicas y la estrecha similitud molecular de las secuencias analizadas, se concluye que los dos aislados procedentes de necrosis, pudrición de tallo y de raíz de <italic>C. odorata</italic> y <italic>S. macrophylla</italic> corresponden a <italic>F. solani,</italic> dado que <italic>F. falciforme</italic> es un miembro del complejo de <italic>F. solani</italic>; este grupo integra diversi- dad de genotipos causada por la variabilidad genética y plasticidad ecológica que la caracteriza (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Sabahi <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). Este constituye el primer reporte de <italic>F. solani</italic>, asociada con la producción de plantas de vivero en <italic>C. odorata</italic> y <italic>S. macrophylla</italic> en el sureste de México.</p>
			<p><bold>Determinación de la CMI y la CML de los fungicidas de síntesis química con- tra <italic>F. solani</italic>.</bold> El Procloraz inhibió la germinación de esporas y en consecuencia el crecimiento de <italic>F. solani</italic> a partir de 2.44 ppm, así como, en las concentraciones mayores a éste; al observarse una tinción azul (no fluorescente) en las esporas tra- tadas, comparado con las esporas del control positivo que cambió de tinción azul a rosa-rojo (fluorescente) lo que indicó crecimiento celular del hongo. Al determinar la CML el efecto del fungicida continuó, y en las muestras fúngicas provenien- tes de las esporas tratadas con las concentraciones del fungicida subcultivadas en medio PDA libre de fungicida, no se observó crecimiento micelial durante las 24 h de la evaluación con respecto a las muestras fúngicas del control positivo que si desarrollaron crecimiento micelial (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>). Con base a estos resultados 2.44 ppm fue la CMI y la CML del Procloraz (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Cuadro 2</xref>). Con lo que se evidenció que el Procloraz causó la muerte de las esporas al no ocurrir la germinación y el creci- miento micelial. Estos resultados se relacionan directamente con el modo de acción del fungicida el cual, interrumpe la biosíntesis de los esteroles (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Medina-Osti <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>), en particular contra el ergosterol, componente esencial de la membrana plas-</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f3">
					<label>Figura 3</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Efecto fungicida de Procloraz y Mancozeb sobre la solución de esporas de <italic>Fusarium solani</italic> provenientes de la microdilución en placa después de dos días de evaluación. <bold>A)</bold> Distribución en cajas petri con medio PDA de cin- co CMI obtenidas de Procloraz, <bold>B</bold> y <bold>C)</bold> Sin crecimiento micelial de <italic>F. solani</italic> en las CMI de Procloraz evaluadas después de 24 y 48 h, <bold>D)</bold> Distribución en cajas petri con medio PDA de cinco CMI obtenidas de Mancozeb, <bold>E</bold> y <bold>F)</bold> Sin crecimiento micelial de <italic>F. solani</italic> en las CMI de Mancozeb evaluadas después de 24 y 48 h.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-03-RMEXFIT24055-gf3.gif"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t2">
					<label>Cuadro 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Concentración mínima inhibitoria (CMI) y Concentración mínima letal (CML) de fungicidas convencionales sobre <italic>Fusarium solani</italic> aislado de <italic>Cedrela odorata</italic> y <italic>Swietenia macrophylla.</italic></title>
					</caption>
					<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Tratamiento- Fungicida (i. a) </th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">CMI (ppm) </th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">yInhibición de germi- nación de esporas (%) </th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">CML (ppm) </th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">zInhibición de crecimiento micelial (%) </th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:center">Procloraz </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">2.44 </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">100 a </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">2.44 </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">100 a </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:center">Carbendazim </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">11.38 </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">100 a </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">11.38 </td>
								<td style="text-align:center">0 b </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:center">Benomilo </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">14.06 </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">100 a </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">14.6 </td>
								<td style="text-align:center">0 b </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:center">Fosetyl-Al </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">1500 </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">0 b </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">1500 </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">0 b (-) </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:center">Captan </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">7.81 </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">100 a </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">7.81 </td>
								<td style="text-align:center">0 b </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:center">Mancozeb </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">7.81 </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">100 a </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">7.81 </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">100 a </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:center">Testigo </td>
								<td style="text-align:center">0 </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">0 b </td>
								<td style="text-align:center">0 </td>
								<td style="text-align:left">0 b (-) </td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN1">
							<label><sup>y</sup></label>
							<p> Medias con la misma literal entre columnas son iguales (p≤ 0.05).</p>
						</fn>
						<fn id="TFN2">
							<label><sup>z</sup></label>
							<p> 100 %) actividad fungicida, 0 %) actividad fungistática y 0 (-) sin actividad.</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>mática que mantiene rigidez y permeabilidad de las esporas. Cuando se altera este componente puede existir una lisis de la estructura de la membrana, lo que afecta el transporte de nutrientes y la síntesis de quitina, los cuales, son esenciales para el crecimiento micelial. En <italic>F. oxysporum</italic> y <italic>Colletotrichum acutatum</italic> con la inhibición del ergosterol, observaron daños estructurales que causaron esporas encogidas y arrugadas y en consecuencia inviabilidad de los hongos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Kim <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Misma efectividad se encontraron en otros estudios, a concentraciones de 4, 40 y 400 ppm de Procloraz en el que inhibieron el crecimiento de <italic>F. graminearum</italic>, <italic>F. proliferatum</italic> y <italic>F. verticillioides</italic> causantes de la pudrición de la aurícula del maíz (Massiello <italic>et al</italic>., 2019) y, en <italic>Fusarium</italic> sp. causante de la marchitez vascular de los cítricos con 100 ppm inhibió su crecimiento micelial en un 92 % (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Ortiz-Martínez <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>). El ensayo de la CMI para el Carbendazim fue a partir de 11.38 ppm (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Cuadro 2</xref>).</p>
			<p>Sin embargo, al evaluar el efecto del fungicida y estimar la CML se observó cre- cimiento micelial cuando se subcultivaron en medio PDA libre de fungida, lo que hace suponer, que este producto tuvo efecto fungistático y no fungicida. Resultados diferentes observaron en aislados de papaya causando pudrición de raíces, este fungicida a 150 ppm, inhibió el crecimiento micelial entre 93.5 a 95.3 % (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Kumar <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>) y a 750 ppm inhibió el 100 % del crecimiento de <italic>F. solani</italic> causante de la marchitez vascular del tomate (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Ayvar-Serna <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). Con relación al Benomilo la CMI fue a partir de 14.06 ppm (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Cuadro 2</xref>), la inhibición de la germinación de esporas de <italic>F. solani</italic>, no obstante, al igual que con el Carbendazim cuando se evaluó la CML, las esporas recuperaron su viabilidad, al mostrar crecimiento micelial, lo que también sugirió efecto fungistático a estas dosis. En estudios con dosis mayo- res a 250 ppm inhibió el 100% su crecimiento micelial (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Coronel <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>). Pero en <italic>F. oxysporum</italic> responsables de la marchitez y colapso de las plantas de fresa a concentraciones desde 5 ppm inhibió el crecimiento micelial (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Vega-López y Gra- nado-Montero, 2023</xref>). Lo anterior, hace suponer que la efectividad del fungicida también está en función de la especie y cepa del fitopatógeno. El Carbendazim y el Benomilo son catalogados como preventivos y curativos actúan en la inhibición de las proteínas motoras y del citoesqueleto, específicamente en el ensamble de la β tubulina en la mitosis, lo que afecta la división y el desplazamiento celular, así como la formación del apresorio y, en general el crecimiento micelial (Alburque- que y Gusqui, 2018; FRAC, 2024); Por otro lado, ninguna de las concentraciones evaluadas de Fosetyl-Al mostró actividad antifúngica al permitir el crecimiento del hongo, lo que confirmó la poca efectividad y selectividad de este ingrediente activo con efecto oomicida (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Cristóbal-Alejo <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>). Aunque hay pocos casos de resistencia en algunos fitopatógenos, la frecuencia de uso puede disminuir su efectividad para el control de los hongos fitopatógenos (FRAC, 2024).</p>
			<p>En lo que se refiere al Captan y Mancozeb, la CMI fue 7.81 ppm (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Cuadro 2</xref>), a partir de ésta concentración mostraron inhibición de la germinación de esporas del hongo hasta las concentraciones mayores a éste evaluadas, ya que en estas concentraciones se determinó la inhibición de la germinación de las esporas, al no observarse cambio de tinción de la rezasurina en las microplacas con respecto a los controles positivos, en los cuales, se observó cambio de tinción de la rezasurina, sin embargo, en el ensayo para determinar el efecto del fungicida y la CML, solo con el Mancozeb a ésta misma concentración se obtuvo la CML sobre <italic>F. solani</italic>; ya que no se observó crecimiento micelial del hongo en esta concentración y los demás evaluados al subcultivar en medio PDA libre de fungida, muestras fúngicas provenientes de las microplacas con las concentraciones de fungicida (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>), lo que indicó que este fungicida no solo inhibió la germinación de las esporas mien- tras estuvo en contacto con ellas sino que causó su muerte, por eso no desarrollaron micelio. Caso contrario ocurrió con el Captan, en el cual, si desarrolló crecimiento mice- lial similar al control positivo, lo que supone que solo impidió la germinación de las esporas en el tiempo que estuvieron en contacto en las microplacas. Estos resulta- dos podrían indicar que a pesar que ambos fungicidas son de contacto y su forma de acción es multisitio, entre los cuales afectan la germinación de las esporas (FRAC, 2024), también podrían influir la concentración y el tiempo de la exposición del hongo al fungicida, por lo que las 48 h en las que se mantuvieron las esporas en contacto con las cantidades de captan, fueron insuficientes para penetrar sus célu- las. En evaluaciones recientes mostraron su eficacia contra especies de <italic>Fusarium</italic>, así, al evaluarlos contra <italic>F. incarnatum</italic> hongo asociado a daños en semilla de pasto, el Captan y el Mancozeb a concentraciones de 200 y 300 ppm inhibieron su creci- miento micelial en 97.8 y 93%, respectivamente (Zárate-Ramos <italic>et al</italic>., 2021). En contra de <italic>F. falciforme</italic> recientemente identificado como patógeno de raíz y tallo de guanábana a concentraciones de 12,500 y 10,000 ppm inhibieron del 95 al 100% el crecimiento del hongo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Cambero-Ayón <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). Además, el Captan interfiere con el mecanismo de la respiración del hongo lo que dificulta la germinación y el desarrollo micelial y, el Mancozeb actúa en la modificación e inactivación de las proteínas sensibles a redox como las de la transcripción, traducción y estrés oxida- tivo del ADN (Zárate-Ramos <italic>et al</italic>., 2021).</p>
			<p>Finalmente, solo el Procloraz y el Mancozeb mostraron efecto fungicida al no observarse crecimiento micelial de <italic>F. solani</italic> durante el ensayo para determinar la CML después de 24 y 48 h de subcultivado en medio PDA libre de los fungicidas, lo que confirmó la muerte de las esporas. Mientras que para el caso del Carben- dazim, Benomilo y Captan presentaron un efecto fungistático, ya que durante la prueba para determinar la CML, hubo crecimiento micelial después de 24 y 48 h de exponer al hongo en medio de cultivo PDA en ausencia de fungicida, lo que eviden- ció que estos fungicidas no mataron a las esporas y solo inhibieron su germinación mientras estuvieron en contacto con ellas, pero al sacarlas de este medio con los fungicidas, recuperaron la viabilidad y continuaron con su crecimiento (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Cuadro 2</xref> y <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>).</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusiones</title>
			<p>Las características morfotaxonómicas y el análisis de las secuencias molecula- res de los aislados provenientes de necrosis y pudriciones de tallo y de raíz de <italic>C</italic>. <italic>odorata</italic> y <italic>S</italic>. <italic>macrophylla</italic> correspondieron a <italic>F. solani</italic>, por lo que se asoció a esta especie como el probable factor biótico, responsable del 30 al 50 % de las pérdidas de producción de plantas estimado por viveristas en el sureste de México. El Procloraz y el Mancozeb mostraron <italic>in vitro</italic> mejor efecto antifúngico contra <italic>F. solani</italic>, con promedios de CMI y CML de 2.44 y 7.81 ppm, respectivamente.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
		<ref-list>
			<title>Literatura Citada</title>
			<ref id="B1">
				<mixed-citation>Alburqueque, AD, Gusqui, MR (2018). Eficacia de fungicidas químicos para el control <italic>in vitro</italic> de diferentes fitopatógenos en condiciones controladas. Arnaldoa, 25(2), 489-498. 10.22497/arnaldoa.252.25209.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Alburqueque</surname>
							<given-names>AD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Gusqui</surname>
							<given-names>MR</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2018</year>
					<article-title>Eficacia de fungicidas químicos para el control in vitro de diferentes fitopatógenos en condiciones controladas</article-title>
					<source>Arnaldoa</source>
					<volume>25</volume>
					<issue>2</issue>
					<fpage>489</fpage>
					<lpage>498</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.22497/arnaldoa.252.25209</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B2">
				<mixed-citation>Arsensi, I, Mardji, D (2021). Diseases of Shoot, Stem and Root on <italic>Eucalyptus pellita</italic> F. Muell. At Sebulu, East Kalimantan. Advances in Biological Sciences Research, 11, 186-192. 10.2991/absr.k.210408.031.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Arsensi</surname>
							<given-names>I</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Mardji</surname>
							<given-names>D</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2021</year>
					<article-title>Diseases of Shoot, Stem and Root on Eucalyptus pellita F. Muell. At Sebulu, East Kalimantan</article-title>
					<source>Advances in Biological Sciences Research</source>
					<volume>11</volume>
					<fpage>186</fpage>
					<lpage>192</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.2991/absr.k.210408.031</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B3">
				<mixed-citation>Ayvar-Serna, S, Díaz-Nájera, JF, Vargas-Hernández, M, Enciso-Maldonado, GA, Alvarado-Gómez, OG, Ortiz-Martínez, AI (2021). Actividad antifúngica de pesticidas biológicos, botánicos y químicos sobre el agente causal de la marchitez vascular del jitomate. Revista Fitotecnia Mexicana, 44(4), 617-624. 10.35196/rfm.2021.4.617.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Ayvar-Serna</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Díaz-Nájera</surname>
							<given-names>JF</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Vargas-Hernández</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Enciso-Maldonado</surname>
							<given-names>GA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Alvarado-Gómez</surname>
							<given-names>OG</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ortiz-Martínez</surname>
							<given-names>AI</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2021</year>
					<article-title>Actividad antifúngica de pesticidas biológicos, botánicos y químicos sobre el agente causal de la marchitez vascular del jitomate</article-title>
					<source>Revista Fitotecnia Mexicana</source>
					<volume>44</volume>
					<issue>4</issue>
					<fpage>617</fpage>
					<lpage>624</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.35196/rfm.2021.4.617</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B4">
				<mixed-citation>Balouri, M, Sadiki, M, Koraichi, IS (2016). Methods for <italic>in vitro</italic> evaluating antimicrobial activity: A review. Journal of Pharmaceutical Analysis, 6, 71-79. 10.1016/j.jpha.2015.11.005.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Balouri</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Sadiki</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Koraichi</surname>
							<given-names>IS</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2016</year>
					<article-title>Methods for in vitro evaluating antimicrobial activity: A review</article-title>
					<source>Journal of Pharmaceutical Analysis</source>
					<volume>6</volume>
					<fpage>71</fpage>
					<lpage>79</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jpha.2015.11.005</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B5">
				<mixed-citation>Barnett, HL, Hunter, B (1998). Illustrated Genera of Imperfect Fungi, 4th Ed. St. Paul, Minnesota, USA: The American Phytopathological Society. 218 p. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.academia.edu/35499449/Illustrated_genera_of_imperfect_fungi_fourth_edition_Barnett_y_Hunter_pdf_pdf">https://www.academia.edu/35499449/Illustrated_genera_of_imperfect_fungi_fourth_edition_Barnett_y_Hunter_pdf_pdf</ext-link>.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Barnett</surname>
							<given-names>HL</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hunter</surname>
							<given-names>B</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>1998</year>
					<source>Illustrated Genera of Imperfect Fungi</source>
					<publisher-loc>St. Paul, Minnesota, USA</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>The American Phytopathological Society</publisher-name>
					<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.academia.edu/35499449/Illustrated_genera_of_imperfect_fungi_fourth_edition_Barnett_y_Hunter_pdf_pdf">https://www.academia.edu/35499449/Illustrated_genera_of_imperfect_fungi_fourth_edition_Barnett_y_Hunter_pdf_pdf</ext-link>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B6">
				<mixed-citation>Cambero-Ayón, CB, Rios-Velasco, C, Luna-Esquivel, G, López-Guzmán, GG, Estrada-Virgen, MO, Cambero-Campos, OJ (2023). Supresión <italic>in vitro</italic> de patógenos fúngicos de raíz en <italic>Annona muricata</italic> L. por cepas de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> y fungicidas convencionales. Revista Bio Ciencias. 10.15741/revbio.10.e1497.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Cambero-Ayón</surname>
							<given-names>CB</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Rios-Velasco</surname>
							<given-names>C</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Luna-Esquivel</surname>
							<given-names>G</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>López-Guzmán</surname>
							<given-names>GG</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Estrada-Virgen</surname>
							<given-names>MO</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Cambero-Campos</surname>
							<given-names>OJ</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2023</year>
					<article-title>Supresión in vitro de patógenos fúngicos de raíz en Annona muricata L. por cepas de Trichoderma y fungicidas convencionales</article-title>
					<source>Revista Bio Ciencias</source>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.15741/revbio.10.e1497</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B7">
				<mixed-citation>Caso, CV, Pereira, NSD, Cintra, GM, Benard, G, Lopes, MH, Keiko, SP (2021). Evaluation of antimicrobial susceptibility testing of <italic>Nocardia</italic> spp. isolates by broth microdilution with resazurin and spectrophotometry. BMC Microbiology, 21, 331-338. 10.1186/s12866-021-02394-w.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Caso</surname>
							<given-names>CV</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Pereira</surname>
							<given-names>NSD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Cintra</surname>
							<given-names>GM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Benard</surname>
							<given-names>G</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Lopes</surname>
							<given-names>MH</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Keiko</surname>
							<given-names>SP</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2021</year>
					<article-title>Evaluation of antimicrobial susceptibility testing of Nocardia spp. isolates by broth microdilution with resazurin and spectrophotometry</article-title>
					<source>BMC Microbiology</source>
					<volume>21</volume>
					<fpage>331</fpage>
					<lpage>338</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1186/s12866-021-02394-w</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B8">
				<mixed-citation>CLSI (2017). Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing. 27th ed. CLSI supplement M100. Wayne, Pennsylvania, USA: Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. 282 p. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://goums.ac.ir/files/deputy_treat/md_labs_ef39a/files/M100-S27_CLSI_2017.pdf">https://goums.ac.ir/files/deputy_treat/md_labs_ef39a/files/M100-S27_CLSI_2017.pdf</ext-link> (consulta, enero 2024).</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="webpage">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<collab>CLSI</collab>
					</person-group>
					<year>2017</year>
					<source>Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing. 27th ed. CLSI supplement M100</source>
					<publisher-loc>Wayne, Pennsylvania, USA</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute</publisher-name>
					<size units="pages">282 p.</size>
					<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://goums.ac.ir/files/deputy_treat/md_labs_ef39a/files/M100-S27_CLSI_2017.pdf">https://goums.ac.ir/files/deputy_treat/md_labs_ef39a/files/M100-S27_CLSI_2017.pdf</ext-link>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B9">
				<mixed-citation>CLSI (2020). Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing. 30th ed. CLSI supplement M100. Wayne, Pennsylvania, USA: Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. 332 p. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.nih.org.pk/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/CLSI-2020.pdf">https://www.nih.org.pk/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/CLSI-2020.pdf</ext-link> (consulta, febrero 2024).</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="webpage">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<collab>CLSI</collab>
					</person-group>
					<year>2020</year>
					<source>Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing. 30th ed. CLSI supplement M100</source>
					<publisher-loc>Wayne, Pennsylvania, USA</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute</publisher-name>
					<fpage>332</fpage>
					<lpage>332</lpage>
					<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.nih.org.pk/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/CLSI-2020.pdf">https://www.nih.org.pk/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/CLSI-2020.pdf</ext-link>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B10">
				<mixed-citation>Coronel, AC, Parraguirre, LC, Pacheco, HY, Santiago, TO, Rivera, TA, Romero, AO (2022). Efficacy of four <italic>in vitro</italic> fungicides for control of wilting of strawberry crops in Puebla-Mexico. Applied Sciences, 12(3213), 2-15. 10.3390/app12073213.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Coronel</surname>
							<given-names>AC</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Parraguirre</surname>
							<given-names>LC</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Pacheco</surname>
							<given-names>HY</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Santiago</surname>
							<given-names>TO</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Rivera</surname>
							<given-names>TA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Romero</surname>
							<given-names>AO</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2022</year>
					<article-title>Efficacy of four in vitro fungicides for control of wilting of strawberry crops in Puebla-Mexico</article-title>
					<source>Applied Sciences</source>
					<volume>12</volume>
					<issue>3213</issue>
					<fpage>2</fpage>
					<lpage>15</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3390/app12073213</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B11">
				<mixed-citation>Cristóbal-Alejo, J, Navarrete-Mapen, Z, Herrera-Parra, E, Mis-Mut, M, Tun-Suárez, JM, Ruiz-Sánchez, E (2013). Hifomicetos asociados a plantas tropicales del estado de Yucatán, México: Identificación genérica y evaluación de fungicidas para su control. Revista Protección Vegetal, 28(2), 138-144.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Cristóbal-Alejo</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Navarrete-Mapen</surname>
							<given-names>Z</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Herrera-Parra</surname>
							<given-names>E</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Mis-Mut</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Tun-Suárez</surname>
							<given-names>JM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ruiz-Sánchez</surname>
							<given-names>E</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2013</year>
					<article-title>Hifomicetos asociados a plantas tropicales del estado de Yucatán, México: Identificación genérica y evaluación de fungicidas para su control</article-title>
					<source>Revista Protección Vegetal</source>
					<volume>28</volume>
					<issue>2</issue>
					<fpage>138</fpage>
					<lpage>144</lpage>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B12">
				<mixed-citation>Ekwomadu, ET, Mwanza, M (2023). <italic>Fusarium</italic> Fungi Pathogens, Identification, Adverse Effects, Disease Management, and Global Food Security: A Review of the Latest Research. Agriculture, 13(1810), 2-20. 10.3390/agriculture13091810.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Ekwomadu</surname>
							<given-names>ET</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Mwanza</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2023</year>
					<article-title>Fusarium Fungi Pathogens, Identification, Adverse Effects, Disease Management, and Global Food Security: A Review of the Latest Research</article-title>
					<source>Agriculture</source>
					<volume>13</volume>
					<issue>1810</issue>
					<fpage>2</fpage>
					<lpage>20</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3390/agriculture13091810</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B13">
				<mixed-citation>Elshikh, M, Ahmed, S, Funston, S, Dunlop, P, McGaw, M, Marchant, R, Banat, IM (2016). Resazurin-based 96-well plate microdilution method for the determination of minimum inhibitory concentration of biosurfactants. Biotechnol Lett, 38, 1015-1019. 10.1007/s10529-016-2079-2.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Elshikh</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ahmed</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Funston</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Dunlop</surname>
							<given-names>P</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>McGaw</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Marchant</surname>
							<given-names>R</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Banat</surname>
							<given-names>IM</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2016</year>
					<article-title>Resazurin-based 96-well plate microdilution method for the determination of minimum inhibitory concentration of biosurfactants</article-title>
					<source>Biotechnol Lett</source>
					<volume>38</volume>
					<fpage>1015</fpage>
					<lpage>1019</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s10529-016-2079-2</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B14">
				<mixed-citation>FRAC (2024). Fungal control agents by cross resistance pattern and mode of action. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.frac.info">https://www.frac.info</ext-link> (consulta, marzo 2024).</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="webpage">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<collab>FRAC</collab>
					</person-group>
					<year>2024</year>
					<article-title>Fungal control agents by cross resistance pattern and mode of action</article-title>
					<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.frac.info">https://www.frac.info</ext-link>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B15">
				<mixed-citation>Galicia, L, Chávez-Vergara, BM, Kolb, M, Jasso-Flores, RI, Rodríguez-Bustos, LA, Solís, LE, Guerra de la Cruz, V, Pérez-Campuzano, E, Villanueva, A (2018). Perspectivas del enfoque socioecológico en la conservación, el aprovechamiento y pago de servicios ambientales de los bosques templados de México. Madera y Bosques, 4(2), 1-18. 10.21829/myb.2018.2421443.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Galicia</surname>
							<given-names>L</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Chávez-Vergara</surname>
							<given-names>BM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kolb</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Jasso-Flores</surname>
							<given-names>RI</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Rodríguez-Bustos</surname>
							<given-names>LA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Solís</surname>
							<given-names>LE</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Guerra de la Cruz</surname>
							<given-names>V</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Pérez-Campuzano</surname>
							<given-names>E</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Villanueva</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2018</year>
					<article-title>Perspectivas del enfoque socioecológico en la conservación, el aprovechamiento y pago de servicios ambientales de los bosques templados de México</article-title>
					<source>Madera y Bosques</source>
					<volume>4</volume>
					<issue>2</issue>
					<fpage>1</fpage>
					<lpage>18</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.21829/myb.2018.2421443</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B16">
				<mixed-citation>García-Díaz, SE, Aldrete, A, Alvarado-Rosales, D, Cibrián-Tovar, D, Méndez-Montiel, JT, Valdovinos-Ponce, G, Equíhua-Martínez, A (2017). Efecto de <italic>Fusarium circinatum</italic> en la germinación y crecimiento de plántulas de <italic>Pinus greggii</italic> en tres sustratos. Agrociencia, 51(8), 895-908. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328093696_Efecto_de_Fusarium_circinatum_en_la_germinacion_y_crecimiento_de_plantulas_de_Pinus_greggii_en_tres_sustratos">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328093696_Efecto_de_Fusarium_circinatum_en_la_germinacion_y_crecimiento_de_plantulas_de_Pinus_greggii_en_tres_sustratos</ext-link>.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>García-Díaz</surname>
							<given-names>SE</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Aldrete</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Alvarado-Rosales</surname>
							<given-names>D</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Cibrián-Tovar</surname>
							<given-names>D</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Méndez-Montiel</surname>
							<given-names>JT</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Valdovinos-Ponce</surname>
							<given-names>G</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Equíhua-Martínez</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2017</year>
					<article-title>Efecto de Fusarium circinatum en la germinación y crecimiento de plántulas de Pinus greggii en tres sustratos</article-title>
					<source>Agrociencia</source>
					<volume>51</volume>
					<issue>8</issue>
					<fpage>895</fpage>
					<lpage>908</lpage>
					<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328093696_Efecto_de_Fusarium_circinatum_en_la_germinacion_y_crecimiento_de_plantulas_de_Pinus_greggii_en_tres_sustratos">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328093696_Efecto_de_Fusarium_circinatum_en_la_germinacion_y_crecimiento_de_plantulas_de_Pinus_greggii_en_tres_sustratos</ext-link>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B17">
				<mixed-citation>GeoEnciclopedia (2022). Tipos de climas en México. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.geoenciclopedia.com/tipos-de-climas-en-mexico-558.html">https://www.geoenciclopedia.com/tipos-de-climas-en-mexico-558.html</ext-link> (consulta, junio 2024).</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="webpage">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<collab>GeoEnciclopedia</collab>
					</person-group>
					<year>2022</year>
					<article-title>Tipos de climas en México</article-title>
					<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.geoenciclopedia.com/tipos-de-climas-en-mexico-558.html">https://www.geoenciclopedia.com/tipos-de-climas-en-mexico-558.html</ext-link>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B18">
				<mixed-citation>Hafizi, R, Salleh, B, Lattifah, Z (2013). Morphological and molecular characterization of <italic>Fusarium solani</italic> and <italic>F. oxysporum</italic> associated with crown disease of oil palm. Brazilian Journal of Microbiology, 44(3), 959-968. 10.1590/s1517-83822013000300047.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Hafizi</surname>
							<given-names>R</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Salleh</surname>
							<given-names>B</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Lattifah</surname>
							<given-names>Z</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2013</year>
					<article-title>Morphological and molecular characterization of Fusarium solani and F. oxysporum associated with crown disease of oil palm</article-title>
					<source>Brazilian Journal of Microbiology</source>
					<volume>44</volume>
					<issue>3</issue>
					<fpage>959</fpage>
					<lpage>968</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/s1517-83822013000300047</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B19">
				<mixed-citation>Harčárová, M, Čonková, E, Proškovcová, M, Váczi, P, Marcinčáková, D, Bujňák, L (2021). Comparison of antifungal activity of selected essential oils against <italic>Fusarium graminearum in vitro</italic>. Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine, 28(3), 414-418. 10.26444/aaem/137653.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Harčárová</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Čonková</surname>
							<given-names>E</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Proškovcová</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Váczi</surname>
							<given-names>P</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Marcinčáková</surname>
							<given-names>D</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bujňák</surname>
							<given-names>L</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2021</year>
					<article-title>Comparison of antifungal activity of selected essential oils against Fusarium graminearum in vitro</article-title>
					<source>Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine</source>
					<volume>28</volume>
					<issue>3</issue>
					<fpage>414</fpage>
					<lpage>418</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.26444/aaem/137653</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B20">
				<mixed-citation>Kim, YJ, Kim, JH, Rho, JY (2019). Antifungal Activities of <italic>Streptomyces blastmyceticus</italic> Strain 12-6 Against Plant Pathogenic Fungi. Mycobiology, 47(3), 329-334. 10.1080/12298093.2019.1635425.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Kim</surname>
							<given-names>YJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kim</surname>
							<given-names>JH</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Rho</surname>
							<given-names>JY</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2019</year>
					<article-title>Antifungal Activities of Streptomyces blastmyceticus Strain 12-6 Against Plant Pathogenic Fungi</article-title>
					<source>Mycobiology</source>
					<volume>47</volume>
					<issue>3</issue>
					<fpage>329</fpage>
					<lpage>334</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1080/12298093.2019.1635425</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B21">
				<mixed-citation>Kiran, M, Gopakumar, S, Reshmy, R, Vidyasagaran, P (2021). Documentation and characterization of fungal diseases in nursery seedlings of teak (<italic>Tectona grandis</italic> L.f.) in Kerala, India. Indian Phytopathology, 74, 639-647. 10.1007/s42360-021-00333-3.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Kiran</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Gopakumar</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Reshmy</surname>
							<given-names>R</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Vidyasagaran</surname>
							<given-names>P</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2021</year>
					<article-title>Documentation and characterization of fungal diseases in nursery seedlings of teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) in Kerala, India</article-title>
					<source>Indian Phytopathology</source>
					<volume>74</volume>
					<fpage>639</fpage>
					<lpage>647</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s42360-021-00333-3</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B22">
				<mixed-citation>Kisekka, R (2022). Major diseases of nursery forestry tree seedlings in Uganda. National Agricultural Research Organization, 1(1), 1-9. 10.13140/RG.2.2.28919.09125.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Kisekka</surname>
							<given-names>R</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2022</year>
					<article-title>Major diseases of nursery forestry tree seedlings in Uganda</article-title>
					<source>National Agricultural Research Organization</source>
					<volume>1</volume>
					<issue>1</issue>
					<fpage>1</fpage>
					<lpage>9</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.13140/RG.2.2.28919.09125</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B23">
				<mixed-citation>Kowalska-Krochmal, B, Dudek-Wicher, R (2021). Inhibitory Concentration of Antibiotics: Methods, Interpretation, Clinical Relevance. Pathogens, 10, 1-21. 10.3390/pathogens10020165.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Kowalska-Krochmal</surname>
							<given-names>B</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Dudek-Wicher</surname>
							<given-names>R</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2021</year>
					<article-title>Inhibitory Concentration of Antibiotics: Methods, Interpretation, Clinical Relevance</article-title>
					<source>Pathogens</source>
					<volume>10</volume>
					<fpage>1</fpage>
					<lpage>21</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3390/pathogens10020165</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B24">
				<mixed-citation>Kumar, P, Mishra, S, Kumar, A, Kumar, SA (2016). Antifungal efficacy of plant essential oils against stored grain fungi of <italic>Fusarium</italic> spp.. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 53(10), 3725-3734. 10.1007/s13197-016-2347-0.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Kumar</surname>
							<given-names>P</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Mishra</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kumar</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kumar</surname>
							<given-names>SA</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2016</year>
					<article-title>Antifungal efficacy of plant essential oils against stored grain fungi of Fusarium spp.</article-title>
					<source>Journal of Food Science and Technology</source>
					<volume>53</volume>
					<issue>10</issue>
					<fpage>3725</fpage>
					<lpage>3734</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s13197-016-2347-0</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B25">
				<mixed-citation>Kumar, GP, Singh, SK, Shikha, S (2020). <italic>In vitro</italic> efficacy of different fungicides against <italic>Fusarium solani</italic> isolate causing root rot of papaya (<italic>Carica papaya</italic> L.). International Journal of Chemical Studies, 8(3), 221-224. 10.22271/chemi.2020.v8.i3c.9229.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Kumar</surname>
							<given-names>GP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Singh</surname>
							<given-names>SK</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Shikha</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2020</year>
					<article-title>In vitro efficacy of different fungicides against Fusarium solani isolate causing root rot of papaya (Carica papaya L.)</article-title>
					<source>International Journal of Chemical Studies</source>
					<volume>8</volume>
					<issue>3</issue>
					<fpage>221</fpage>
					<lpage>224</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.22271/chemi.2020.v8.i3c.9229</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B26">
				<mixed-citation>Kurt, S, Uysal, A, Soylu, EM, Kara, M, Soylu, S (2020). Characterization and pathogenicity of <italic>Fusarium solani</italic> associated with dry root rot of citrus in the eastern Mediterranean region of Turkey. Journal of General Plant Pathology, 86, 326-332. 10.1007/s10327-020-00922-6.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Kurt</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Uysal</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Soylu</surname>
							<given-names>EM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kara</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Soylu</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2020</year>
					<article-title>Characterization and pathogenicity of Fusarium solani associated with dry root rot of citrus in the eastern Mediterranean region of Turkey</article-title>
					<source>Journal of General Plant Pathology</source>
					<volume>86</volume>
					<fpage>326</fpage>
					<lpage>332</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s10327-020-00922-6</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B27">
				<mixed-citation>Leslie, JF, Summerell, BA, Bulloc, S (2006). The <italic>Fusarium</italic> laboratory manual. First edition. Ed. Blackwell Publishing, Iowa, USA. 388p. 10.1002/9780470278376.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Leslie</surname>
							<given-names>JF</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Summerell</surname>
							<given-names>BA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bulloc</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2006</year>
					<source>The <italic>Fusarium</italic> laboratory manual</source>
					<edition>First edition</edition>
					<publisher-loc>Blackwell Publishing, Iowa</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>USA</publisher-name>
					<fpage>388</fpage>
					<lpage>388</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1002/9780470278376</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B28">
				<mixed-citation>Masiello, M, Somma, S, Ghiona, F, Francesco, LA, Moretti, A (2019). <italic>In Vitro</italic> and in Field Response of Different Fungicides against <italic>Aspergillus flavus</italic> and <italic>Fusarium</italic> Species Causing Ear Rot Disease of Maize. Toxins, 11(11), 1-18. 10.3390/toxins11010011.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Masiello</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Somma</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ghiona</surname>
							<given-names>F</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Francesco</surname>
							<given-names>LA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Moretti</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2019</year>
					<article-title>In Vitro and in Field Response of Different Fungicides against Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium Species Causing Ear Rot Disease of Maize</article-title>
					<source>Toxins</source>
					<volume>11</volume>
					<issue>11</issue>
					<fpage>1</fpage>
					<lpage>18</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3390/toxins11010011</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B29">
				<mixed-citation>Medina-Osti, F, Gutiérrez-Díez, A, Ochoa-Ascencio, S, Sinagawa-García, SR (2022). <italic>In vitro</italic> sensitivity of <italic>Fusarium sacchari</italic> isolated from sugar cane to five fungicides. Mexican Journal of Phytopathology, 40(3), 447-457. 10.18781/R.MEX.FIT.2206-1.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Medina-Osti</surname>
							<given-names>F</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Gutiérrez-Díez</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ochoa-Ascencio</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Sinagawa-García</surname>
							<given-names>SR</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2022</year>
					<article-title>In vitro sensitivity of Fusarium sacchari isolated from sugar cane to five fungicides</article-title>
					<source>Mexican Journal of Phytopathology</source>
					<volume>40</volume>
					<issue>3</issue>
					<fpage>447</fpage>
					<lpage>457</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.18781/R.MEX.FIT.2206-1</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B30">
				<mixed-citation>NCBI (National Center for Biotechnology Information) (2024). BLAST tool. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Blast.cgi">https://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Blast.cgi</ext-link> (consulta, junio 2024).</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="webpage">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<collab>NCBI (National Center for Biotechnology Information)</collab>
					</person-group>
					<year>2024</year>
					<article-title>BLAST tool</article-title>
					<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Blast.cgi">https://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Blast.cgi</ext-link>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B31">
				<mixed-citation>Omar, NH, Mohd, M, Nik Mohd Izham, MN, Zakaria, L (2018). Characterization and pathogenicity of <italic>Fusarium</italic> species associated with leaf spot of mango (<italic>Mangifera indica</italic> L.). Microbial Pathogenesis, 114, 362-368. 10.1016/j.micpath.2017.12.026.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Omar</surname>
							<given-names>NH</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Mohd</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Nik Mohd Izham</surname>
							<given-names>MN</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Zakaria</surname>
							<given-names>L</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2018</year>
					<article-title>Characterization and pathogenicity of Fusarium species associated with leaf spot of mango (Mangifera indica L.)</article-title>
					<source>Microbial Pathogenesis</source>
					<volume>114</volume>
					<fpage>362</fpage>
					<lpage>368</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.micpath.2017.12.026</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B32">
				<mixed-citation>Ortiz-Martínez, LE, Robles-Yerena, L, Leyva-Mir, SG, Camacho-Tapia, M, Juárez-Rodríguez, L (2022). <italic>Fusarium</italic> sp., causal agent of vascular wilt in citrus and its sensitivity to fungicides. Mexican Journal of Phytopathology, 40(1), 1-17. 10.18781/R.MEX.FIT.2106-3.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Ortiz-Martínez</surname>
							<given-names>LE</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Robles-Yerena</surname>
							<given-names>L</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Leyva-Mir</surname>
							<given-names>SG</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Camacho-Tapia</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Juárez-Rodríguez</surname>
							<given-names>L</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2022</year>
					<article-title>Fusarium sp., causal agent of vascular wilt in citrus and its sensitivity to fungicides</article-title>
					<source>Mexican Journal of Phytopathology</source>
					<volume>40</volume>
					<issue>1</issue>
					<fpage>1</fpage>
					<lpage>17</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.18781/R.MEX.FIT.2106-3</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B33">
				<mixed-citation>Perczak, A, Gwiazdowska, D, Marchwinska, K, Jus, K, Gwiazdowski, R, Waskiewicz, A (2019). Antifungal activity of selected essential oils against <italic>Fusarium culmorum</italic> and <italic>F. graminearum</italic> and their secondary metabolites in wheat seeds. Archives of Microbiology, 201, 1085-1097. 10.1007/s00203-019-01673-5.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Perczak</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Gwiazdowska</surname>
							<given-names>D</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Marchwinska</surname>
							<given-names>K</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Jus</surname>
							<given-names>K</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Gwiazdowski</surname>
							<given-names>R</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Waskiewicz</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2019</year>
					<article-title>Antifungal activity of selected essential oils against Fusarium culmorum and F. graminearum and their secondary metabolites in wheat seeds</article-title>
					<source>Archives of Microbiology</source>
					<volume>201</volume>
					<fpage>1085</fpage>
					<lpage>1097</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s00203-019-01673-5</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B34">
				<mixed-citation>Ríos-Hernández, TA, Uc-Várguez, A, Evangelista-Martínez, Z (2021). Control biológico de <italic>Fusarium oxysporum</italic>, agente causal de la pudrición del cormo en gladiolo, mediante estreptomicetos. Revista Mexicana de Fitopatología, 39(3), 391-413. 10.18781/R.MEX.FIT.2105-3.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Ríos-Hernández</surname>
							<given-names>TA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Uc-Várguez</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Evangelista-Martínez</surname>
							<given-names>Z</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2021</year>
					<article-title>Control biológico de Fusarium oxysporum, agente causal de la pudrición del cormo en gladiolo, mediante estreptomicetos</article-title>
					<source>Revista Mexicana de Fitopatología</source>
					<volume>39</volume>
					<issue>3</issue>
					<fpage>391</fpage>
					<lpage>413</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.18781/R.MEX.FIT.2105-3</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B35">
				<mixed-citation>Secretaría de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (2017). Bosques tropicales, ecosistemas con gran riqueza de especies. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.gob.mx/semarnat/articulos/bosques-tropicales-ecosistemas-con-gran-riqueza-de-especies">https://www.gob.mx/semarnat/articulos/bosques-tropicales-ecosistemas-con-gran-riqueza-de-especies</ext-link> (consulta, junio 2024).</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="webpage">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<collab>Secretaría de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales</collab>
					</person-group>
					<year>2017</year>
					<article-title>Bosques tropicales, ecosistemas con gran riqueza de especies</article-title>
					<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.gob.mx/semarnat/articulos/bosques-tropicales-ecosistemas-con-gran-riqueza-de-especies">https://www.gob.mx/semarnat/articulos/bosques-tropicales-ecosistemas-con-gran-riqueza-de-especies</ext-link>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B36">
				<mixed-citation>Sabahi, F, Banihashemi, Z, Mirtalebi, M, Rep, M, Cacciola, SO (2023). Molecular Variability of the <italic>Fusarium solani</italic> Species Complex Associated with Fusarium Wilt of Melon in Iran. Journal of Fungi, 9(4), 1-19. 10.3390/jof9040486.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Sabahi</surname>
							<given-names>F</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Banihashemi</surname>
							<given-names>Z</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Mirtalebi</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Rep</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Cacciola</surname>
							<given-names>SO</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2023</year>
					<article-title>Molecular Variability of the Fusarium solani Species Complex Associated with Fusarium Wilt of Melon in Iran</article-title>
					<source>Journal of Fungi</source>
					<volume>9</volume>
					<issue>4</issue>
					<fpage>1</fpage>
					<lpage>19</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3390/jof9040486</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B37">
				<mixed-citation>Sharma, A, Rajendran, S, Srivastava, A, Sharma, S, Kundu, B (2016). Antifungal activities of selected essential oils against <italic>Fusarium oxysporum</italic> f. sp. <italic>lycopersici</italic>, with emphasis on <italic>Syzygium aromaticum</italic> essential oil. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering, 1(1), 1-6. 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2016.09.011.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Sharma</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Rajendran</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Srivastava</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Sharma</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kundu</surname>
							<given-names>B</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2016</year>
					<article-title>Antifungal activities of selected essential oils against Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici, with emphasis on Syzygium aromaticum essential oil</article-title>
					<source>Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering</source>
					<volume>1</volume>
					<issue>1</issue>
					<fpage>1</fpage>
					<lpage>6</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jbiosc.2016.09.011</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B38">
				<mixed-citation>SNIGF (Sistema Nacional de Información y Gestión Forestal) (2021). Comisión Nacional Forestal. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://old-snigf.cnf.gob.mx/categoria-producto/noticias-del-sector-forestal/">https://old-snigf.cnf.gob.mx/categoria-producto/noticias-del-sector-forestal/</ext-link> (consulta enero 2021).</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="webpage">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<collab>SNIGF (Sistema Nacional de Información y Gestión Forestal)</collab>
					</person-group>
					<year>2021</year>
					<article-title>Comisión Nacional Forestal</article-title>
					<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://old-snigf.cnf.gob.mx/categoria-producto/noticias-del-sector-forestal/">https://old-snigf.cnf.gob.mx/categoria-producto/noticias-del-sector-forestal/</ext-link>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B39">
				<mixed-citation>Sun, HM, Ryu, H, Jong, JH, Hyo-Won, C (2023). Diversity and pathogenic characteristics of the <italic>Fusarium</italic> species isolated from minor legumes in Korea. Nature Portfolio, 13, 22516. 10.1038/s41598-023-49736-4.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Sun</surname>
							<given-names>HM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ryu</surname>
							<given-names>H</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Jong</surname>
							<given-names>JH</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hyo-Won</surname>
							<given-names>C</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2023</year>
					<article-title>Diversity and pathogenic characteristics of the Fusarium species isolated from minor legumes in Korea</article-title>
					<source>Nature Portfolio</source>
					<volume>13</volume>
					<fpage>22516</fpage>
					<lpage>22516</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1038/s41598-023-49736-4</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B40">
				<mixed-citation>Uc-Várguez, A, López-Puc, G, Góngora-Canul, C, Martínez-Sebastián, M, Aguilera-Cauich, EA (2018). Spatio-temporal spread of foot rot (<italic>Lasiodiplodia theobromae</italic>) in <italic>Jatropha curcas</italic> L. plantations in Yucatán, México. European Journal of Plant Pathology, 150, 991-1000. 10.1007/s10658-017-1338-y.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Uc-Várguez</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>López-Puc</surname>
							<given-names>G</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Góngora-Canul</surname>
							<given-names>C</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Martínez-Sebastián</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Aguilera-Cauich</surname>
							<given-names>EA</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2018</year>
					<article-title>Spatio-temporal spread of foot rot (Lasiodiplodia theobromae) in Jatropha curcas L. plantations in Yucatán, México</article-title>
					<source>European Journal of Plant Pathology</source>
					<volume>150</volume>
					<fpage>991</fpage>
					<lpage>1000</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s10658-017-1338-y</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B41">
				<mixed-citation>Vega-López, M, Granados-Montero, M (2023). Efficacy of benomyl and folpet on <italic>Fusarium oxysporum</italic>, a strawberry pathogen. Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Agrícolas, 14(3), 485-490. 10.29312/remexca.v14i3.3253.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Vega-López</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Granados-Montero</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2023</year>
					<article-title>Efficacy of benomyl and folpet on Fusarium oxysporum, a strawberry pathogen</article-title>
					<source>Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Agrícolas</source>
					<volume>14</volume>
					<issue>3</issue>
					<fpage>485</fpage>
					<lpage>490</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.29312/remexca.v14i3.3253</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B42">
				<mixed-citation>White, T, Bruns, T, Lee, S, Taylor, J (1990). Amplification phylogenetics. PCR Protocols: A guide to methods and applications. Innis, MA, Gelfand, DH, Sninsky, JJ, White, TJ. San Diego, California: Academic Press, 315-321. 10.1016/B978-0-12-372180-8.50042-1.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>White</surname>
							<given-names>T</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bruns</surname>
							<given-names>T</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Lee</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Taylor</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>1990</year>
					<chapter-title>Amplification phylogenetics</chapter-title>
					<source>PCR Protocols: A guide to methods and applications</source>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Innis</surname>
							<given-names>MA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Gelfand</surname>
							<given-names>DH</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Sninsky</surname>
							<given-names>JJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>White</surname>
							<given-names>TJ.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<publisher-loc>San Diego, California</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Academic Press</publisher-name>
					<fpage>315</fpage>
					<lpage>321</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/B978-0-12-372180-8.50042-1</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B43">
				<mixed-citation>Zárate-Ramos, A, Quero-Carrillo, AR, Miranda-Jiménez, L, Nava-Díaz, C, Robles-Yerena, L (2022). Fungicides and <italic>Bacillus subtilis</italic> against fungi isolated from commercial seed of side oats grama (<italic>Bouteloua curtipendula</italic>). Mexican Journal of Phytopathology, 40(1), 103-115. 10.18781/R.MEX.FIT.2104-4.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Zárate-Ramos</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Quero-Carrillo</surname>
							<given-names>AR</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Miranda-Jiménez</surname>
							<given-names>L</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Nava-Díaz</surname>
							<given-names>C</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Robles-Yerena</surname>
							<given-names>L</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2022</year>
					<article-title>Fungicides and Bacillus subtilis against fungi isolated from commercial seed of side oats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula)</article-title>
					<source>Mexican Journal of Phytopathology</source>
					<volume>40</volume>
					<issue>1</issue>
					<fpage>103</fpage>
					<lpage>115</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.18781/R.MEX.FIT.2104-4</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
		</ref-list>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="en">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Articles</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title><italic>Fusarium solani</italic> associated with <italic>Cedrela odorata</italic> and <italic>Swietenia macrophylla</italic> and their sensitivity to conventional fungicides</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<abstract>
				<title>ABSTRACT</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Background </title>
					<p><italic>/</italic> 
 <bold>Objective.</bold> In the state of Yucatan, Mexico, 10 million forest plants were produced in the last five years for various conservation and restoration actions. The main limitations in the production of these plants in nursery are disease induced by the genus <italic>Fusarium</italic> spp., that cause stem and root rots and plant production losses of up to 50%. The objective of the work was to identify the causal agent associated with stem and root rot and necrosis of cedar (<italic>Cedrela odorata</italic>) and mahogany (<italic>Swietenia macrophylla</italic>) and their <italic>in vitro</italic> sensitivity to conventional fungicides.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Materials and Methods. </title>
					<p><italic>C. odorata</italic> and <italic>S. macrophylla</italic> plants were collected at three and six weeks of germination, respectively, with symptoms of necrosis and rot indicated; from where five fungal isolates were obtained and morphologically and molecularly identified. The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) of spores and the Minimum Lethal Concentration (MLC) of six conventional fungicides of recurrent application in the region (Prochloraz, Carbendazim, Benomyl, Fosetyl Al, Captan and Mancozeb) were determined <italic>in vitro</italic> by the microdilution method and validate their effectiveness and viability in the management of this problematic.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Results. </title>
					<p>The morphology and molecular sequences of the isolates were similar to the reported for <italic>Fusarium solani</italic>. The MIC of <italic>F. solani</italic> spores for Prochloraz, Carbendazim, Benomyl, Captan and Mancozeb were 2.44. 11.38, 14.06, 7.81 and 7.81 ppm, respectively; Fosetyl Al, did not inhibit spore germination normal</p>
					<p>mycelial growth of the fungus was observed at the concentration evaluated.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Conclusion. </title>
					<p>Prochloraz and Mancozeb had the lowest MLC with 2.44 and 7.81 ppm, respectively.</p>
				</sec>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Key words:</title>
				<kwd>cedar</kwd>
				<kwd>mahogany</kwd>
				<kwd>root of rot</kwd>
				<kwd>nursery</kwd>
				<kwd>chemical control</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introduction</title>
				<p>In Mexico, approximately 1 billion forest plants were produced over the last five years, including species from arid, temperate, and tropical climates. Of this production, the state of Yucatán produced around 10 million plants for various reforestation or restoration efforts. The main species produced were <italic>C. odorata</italic>, <italic>S. macrophylla</italic>, <italic>Tabebuia rosea</italic>, <italic>Brosimun alicastrum</italic>, and <italic>Cordia dodecandra</italic> (SNIGF, 2021). One of the limiting factors in the production process is stem and root rot diseases caused by <italic>Fusarium</italic> spp. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Kisekka, 2022</xref>). According to information provided by nursery growers, production losses range from 30 to 50%.</p>
				<p>The genus <italic>Fusarium</italic> has approximately 1,779 species with a cosmopolitan distribution (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Sun <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). They are ubiquitous in nature, as they can tolerate any environmental condition. They can be found in air, water, soil, plants, and plant debris. A large number of its species are plant pathogens, producers of mycotoxins, and induce a wide range of diseases that affect various crops. The symptoms they cause mainly include root and stem rot, cankers, vascular wilt, and fruit and seed rot (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Ekwomadu and Mwanza, 2023</xref>).</p>
				<p>In nurseries of temperate regions, characterized by a humid or subhumid climate with average temperatures between 12 and 18 °C and annual precipitation between 600 and 1500 mm (GeoEnciclopedia, 2022), the vegetation consists of pine forests, oak forests, and pine-oak forests (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Galicia <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>). In this context, <italic>F. circinatum</italic> in pine plants causes the main disease known as “pitch canker,” characterized by root rot, reducing plant quality and leading to production losses of up to 40% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">García-Díaz <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>). In tropical regions, where the temperature is above 18 °C and annual precipitation ranges from 800 to 4000 mm (GeoEnciclopedia, 2022), and the vegetation consists of various species of evergreen, sub-evergreen, deciduous, and sub-deciduous types (Secretaría de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales, 2017), <italic>Fusarium</italic> sp. has been identified as responsible for stem rot in <italic>Eucalyptus pellita</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Arsensi and Mardji, 2021</xref>) and <italic>F. solani</italic> as the causal agent of root rot in <italic>Tectona grandis</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Kiran <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>).</p>
				<p>In Mexico, information on the diagnosis and etiology of the causal agents of fungal diseases observed in tropical forest nurseries is scarce, as well as on the methods used for their control. Currently, the control of these diseases in forest plants growing in nurseries relies on synthetic fungicides due to their rapid response in controlling the pathogen and their ease of application (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Kisekka, 2022</xref>). However, applications are sometimes unsuccessful because no prior sensitivity studies are conducted <italic>in vitro</italic> and <italic>in vivo</italic> with the available local fungicides.</p>
				<p>In plant production in nurseries, good phytosanitary conditions are the foundation of any production or reforestation project, as planting diseased plants in the field lowers their chances of survival and makes them sources of inoculum for healthy plants. To develop an effective control method for the phytosanitary problems affecting nursery plants, identifying the causal agents is essential. This knowledge allows for the design of efficient control strategies and the application of specific products for their management, thereby also reducing environmental contamination. Thus, the objective of this work was to identify the causal agent associated with stem and root rot and necrosis of <italic>C. odorata</italic> and <italic>S. macrophylla</italic> and its <italic>in vitro</italic> sensitivity to conventional fungicides.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="materials|methods">
				<title>Materials and Methods</title>
				<p>Sample collection. In 2023, at the Mexico Primero nursery located at 88° 58´48.15¨ W and 19° 59´10.56¨ N, in the municipality of Tzucacab, Yucatan, plants of <italic>C. odorata</italic> and <italic>S. macrophylla</italic> were collected at three- and six-weeks post- germination, respectively, showing symptoms of stem and root base necrosis and rot (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 1</xref>). Samples were placed in brown paper bags, then transferred to plastic bags, labeled, and transported to the Phytopathology Laboratory of the National Technological Institute of Mexico, Campus Conkal, for isolation and identification of the causal agent(s).</p>
				<p>Isolates from Symptoms. The stems and roots of plants showing symptoms of necrosis and rot were rinsed with tap water to remove substrate residues. Approximately 0.5 to 1 cm² cuts were made from the damaged tissue. To eliminate external contaminants, they were disinfested with 2% commercial sodium hypochlorite for 2 minutes. Subsequently, they were rinsed three times with sterile distilled water for 2 minutes each and dried with sterile absorbent paper. Finally, five fragments of approximately 0.5 to 1 cm² were placed in Petri dishes with Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) medium and incubated at 28±2 °C. After 48 hours, mycelial growth was observed and re-isolated onto PDA culture plates. The re- isolated mycelial growths were purified using hyphal tips and subsequently from spores, monosporic cultures were initiated (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Ríos-Hernández <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>), yielding three isolates of <italic>C. odorata</italic> and two isolates of <italic>S. macrophylla</italic>.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f4">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Plants with symptoms of necrosis and rot in the stem and root. <bold>A, B</bold>, and <bold>C)</bold> 
 <italic>Cedrela odorata</italic> plants. <bold>D, E</bold>, and <bold>F)</bold> 
 <italic>Swietenia macrophylla</italic> plants.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-03-RMEXFIT24055-gf4.gif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Morphological identification. For the morphological identification of fungal isolates at the genus level, sterile samples of approximately 5 mm diameter mycelium were taken with a dissecting needle. These were placed in Petri dishes with PDA medium and incubated at 28±2 °C. They were monitored until reproductive structures appeared, assessing growth characteristics such as mycelial type, isolate color, type and shape of spores, and fruiting bodies (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Barnett and Hunter 1998</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Leslie <italic>et al</italic>., 2006</xref>). Semi-permanent preparations were made and morphological features were observed under a microscope (Axiostar Plus, Carl Zeiss) equipped with an ocular measurement grid, calibrated for each objective as necessary. Length and width measurements (n=100) of macroconidia and microconidia were taken.</p>
				<p>Molecular identification. Considering that the five isolates exhibited similar morphological characteristics, one isolate from each host was randomly selected for molecular identification. This involved DNA extraction from each fungus using the DNeasy Kit (QIAGEN). The extracted DNA was used to amplify the Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) region through Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), employing the universal primers ITS4 (5’-TCCTCCGCTTATTGATATGC-3’) and ITS5 (5’-GGAAGTAAAAGTCGTAACAAGG-3’) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">White <italic>et al</italic>., 1990</xref>), and</p>
				<p>elongation factor-1α with primers EF-1 (5′-ATGGGTAAGGARGACAAGAC-3′) and EF-2 (5′-GGARGTACCAGTSATCATG¬TT-3′) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Ríos-Hernández et al., 2021</xref>). PCR amplification conditions were as follows: Initial denaturation at 94</p>
				<p>°C for 30 s, followed by 38 cycles (denaturation at 90 °C for 30 s, annealing at 58 °C for 45 s, and extension at 72 °C for 1 min), with a final extension at 72 °C for 5 min (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Uc-Várguez <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>). Amplification was conducted using an AB thermocycler (Applied Biosystems), and the PCR products were analyzed by 1% agarose gel electrophoresis. Purification and sequencing of the PCR products were performed at Macrogen Genome Center in Seoul, Republic of Korea. The resulting sequences were edited using BioEdit software (version 7.7.1, available online) and subsequently compared with sequences in the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI, 2024) database using the BLAST tool, also available online.</p>
				<p>Minimum Inhibitory Concentration for Spore Germination and Minimum Lethal Concentration. To estimate the antifungal activity of six active ingredients from conventional fungicides (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 1</xref>) against fungal isolates of <italic>C. odorata</italic> and <italic>S. macrophylla</italic>, the Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) for spore germination was determined. The microdilution method was used in sterile 96-well polystyrene microplates with Potato Dextrose Agar at twice its concentration (CLSI, 2017; CLSI, 2020). Each well of the microplate received 100 μL of Potato Dextrose broth, and 100 μL of sterile distilled water was added to wells in the negative control row. Subsequently, each well in the first column received 100 μL of the respective fungicidal solution, mixed thoroughly. 100 μL of the mixture from each well was transferred to the wells of the second column, and so forth, maintaining a 50% concentration of the fungicidal solution from the first well onwards. After dilutions</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t3">
						<label>Table 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Conventional fungicides evaluated for their effect on spore germination and mycelial growth of <italic>Fusarium solani</italic> isolated from <italic>Cedrela odorata</italic> and <italic>Swietenia macrophylla</italic>.</title>
						</caption>
						<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Fungicide (a. i.) </th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Fungicide group </th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Type of fungicide </th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Maximum initial dose (ppm) </th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Prochloraz </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">Imidazole </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">Systemic </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">625 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Carbendazim </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">Bencimidazole </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">Systemic </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">364 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Benomyl </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">Bencimidazole </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">Systemic </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">225 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Fosetyl Al </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">Ethyl phosphonate </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">Systemic </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">1500 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Captan </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">Phthalimide </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">Contact </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">1000 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Mancozeb </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">Ditihocarbamate </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">Contact </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">1000 </td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>were complete, 100 μL of spores of the fungus, counted in a Neubauer chamber at a concentration of 1 x 105 spores mL-1, were added to each well. Positive control wells contained Potato Dextrose broth and fungus spores at described concentrations, resulting in a final volume of 200 μL per well. The contents of each well were mixed (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Harčárová <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Ríos-Hernández <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). Microplates were incubated at 29°C; the assay followed a completely randomized experimental design with four replicates. Data were analyzed using analysis of variance after data transformation with SAS ver. 9.4 (y=arsin(sqrt(y/100)), and mean comparisons were performed using Tukey’s method (p≤0.05). Spore germination inhibition was evaluated at 24, 48, and 72 hours using resazurin (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Sharma et al., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Balouri <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Kumar <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>; Ríos-Hernández <italic>et al</italic>., 2021) as an oxidation-reduction indicator to confirm spore viability by a change from blue (non-fluorescent) to pink-red (fluorescent) staining due to chemical reduction of the growth medium by microbial cell growth (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Elshikh <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Caso <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). The MIC of each fungicide, defined as the lowest concentration preventing fungal mycelial growth, was determined after two hours of incubation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Kowalska-Krochmal and Dudek- Wicher, 2021</xref>). Subsequently, the Minimum Lethal Concentration (MLC), defined as the lowest concentration of fungicide at which no fungal growth was observed 24 hours after subculturing in fungicide-free medium (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Perczak <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>; Harčárová <italic>et al</italic>., 2021; Ríos-Hernández <italic>et al</italic>., 2021), was calculated in triplicate using 5 μL of fungal content inhibited at the MIC and four concentrations above the MIC, incubated at 29 °C. Fungal growth presence or absence was observed at 24 hours; fungistatic activity was noted when fungal growth occurred, and fungicidal activity when no growth was observed (Ríos-Hernández <italic>et al</italic>., 2021).</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="results|discussion">
				<title>Results and Discussion</title>
				<p>Morphological identification. The morphological characteristics of the five isolates from necrosis, stem rot, and root rot of <italic>C. odorata</italic> and <italic>S. macrophylla</italic> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 2</xref>) exhibited septate and smooth mycelium during the first four to five days of growth, becoming cottony with shades ranging from white to pale cream by day</p>
				<p>8. Abundant microconidia were produced in long monophialides, hyaline, oval, and fusiform, generally with zero to one septum, measuring 8-25 μm long and 3.5-5 μm wide; irregularly shaped sporodochia of pale cream color and numerous robust, slightly curved, hyaline macroconidia with three to four septa, measuring 24-36 μm long and 4-5 μm wide were observed. Single and double chlamydospores with a globular shape and thick walls were also noted. These isolate characteristics were consistent with those described for <italic>Fusarium solani</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Leslie <italic>et al.,</italic> 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Hafizi <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Omar <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Kurt <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f5">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>A and D) View of 14-day-old <italic>Fusarium solani</italic> isolated from <italic>Cedrela odorata</italic> and <italic>Swietenia macrophylla</italic>, B) Septate mycelium and microconidia of <italic>F. solani</italic>, C) Macroconidia (3-4 septa) and microconidia (0-1 septum) of <italic>F. solani</italic> observed at 100X magnification, E) Macroconidia and microconidia observed at 40X magnification, and F) Sporodochia.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-03-RMEXFIT24055-gf5.gif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Molecular identification. The resulting sequences from the amplified fragments of the ITS region (600 bp) of the two isolates from <italic>C. odorata</italic> and <italic>S. macrophylla</italic>, when compared to sequences in the NCBI database, showed similarities of 99.26% and 99.79%, respectively, with sequences corresponding to <italic>F. solani</italic> and <italic>F. falciforme</italic>. Consequently, analysis of the sequences from the fragments of the elongation factor-1α (700 bp) genes of the same isolates revealed similarities of 99.83% and 95.73%, respectively, with sequences of <italic>F. solani</italic> and <italic>F. falciforme</italic>. Considering the morphological characteristics and close molecular similarity of the analyzed sequences, it is concluded that the two isolates from necrosis, stem rot, and root rot of <italic>C. odorata</italic> and <italic>S. macrophylla</italic> correspond to <italic>F. solani</italic>, given that</p>
				<p><italic>F. falciforme</italic> is a member of the <italic>F. solani</italic> complex, which encompasses a diversity of genotypes due to its genetic variability and ecological plasticity (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Sabahi <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). This constitutes the first report of <italic>F. solani</italic> associated with nursery plant production in <italic>C. odorata</italic> and <italic>S. macrophylla</italic> in southeastern Mexico.</p>
				<p><bold>Determination of MIC and MLC of synthetic fungicides against <italic>F. solani</italic>.</bold> Prochloraz inhibited spore germination and consequently the growth of <italic>F. solani</italic> at concentrations starting from 2.44 ppm and higher. Treated spores exhibited a blue (non-fluorescent) staining compared to the positive control spores, which changed from blue to pink-red (fluorescent), indicating fungal cell growth. Upon determining the MLC, the fungicidal effect persisted, with fungal samples from spores treated with fungicide concentrations subcultured in fungicide-free PDA medium showing no mycelial growth during the 24-hour evaluation, unlike fungal samples from the positive control that did develop mycelial growth (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 3</xref>). Based on these results, 2.44 ppm was both the MIC and MLC of Prochloraz (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 2</xref>). This demonstrates that Prochloraz caused spore death by preventing germination and mycelial growth. These findings directly correlate with the fungicide’s mode of action, which disrupts sterol biosynthesis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Medina-Osti <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>), particularly targeting ergosterol, an essential component of the fungal plasma membrane that maintains rigidity and permeability of spores. Disruption of this component can lead to membrane structure lysis, affecting nutrient transport and chitin synthesis, both crucial for mycelial growth. Studies on <italic>F. oxysporum</italic> and <italic>Colletotrichum acutatum</italic> showed structural damage, resulting in shrunken and wrinkled spores, and consequently fungal inviability, upon ergosterol inhibition (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Kim <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Similar effectiveness was observed in other studies where concentrations of 4, 40, and 400 ppm of Prochloraz inhibited the growth of <italic>F. graminearum</italic>, <italic>F. proliferatum</italic>, and <italic>F. verticillioides</italic>, causing corn ear rot (Massiello <italic>et al</italic>., 2019), and in <italic>Fusarium</italic> sp. causing citrus vascular wilt, with 100 ppm inhibiting mycelial growth by 92% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Ortiz-Martínez <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f6">
						<label>Figure 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Fungicidal effect of Prochloraz and Mancozeb on the spore solution of <italic>Fusarium solani</italic> obtained from the microdilution plate after two days of evaluation. <bold>A)</bold> Distribution in Petri dishes with PDA medium of five MIC obtained from Prochloraz, <bold>B</bold> and <bold>C)</bold> No mycelial growth of <italic>F. solani</italic> in the MIC of Prochloraz evaluated after 24 and 48 h, <bold>D)</bold> Distribution in Petri dishes with PDA medium of five MIC obtained from Mancozeb, <bold>E</bold> and <bold>F)</bold> No mycelial growth of <italic>F. solani</italic> in the MIC of Mancozeb evaluated after 24 and 48 h.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-03-RMEXFIT24055-gf6.gif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t4">
						<label>Table 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum lethal concentration (MLC) of conventional fungicides against <italic>Fusarium solani</italic> isolated from <italic>Cedrela odorata</italic> and <italic>Swietenia macrophylla</italic>.</title>
						</caption>
						<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Fungicide- treatment (a.i.) </th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">MIC (ppm) </th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">y Inhibition of spore germination (%) </th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">MLC (ppm) </th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">z Inhibition of mycelial growth (%) </th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Prochloraz </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">2.44 </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">100 a </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">2.44 </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">100 a </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Carbendazim </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">11.38 </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">100 a </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">11.38 </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">0 b </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Benomyl </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">14.06 </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">100 a </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">14.6 </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">0 b </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Fosetyl-Al </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">1500 </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">0 b </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">1500 </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">0 b (-) </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Captan </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">7.81 </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">100 a </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">7.81 </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">0 b </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Mancozeb </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">7.81 </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">100 a </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">7.81 </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">100 a </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:left">Control </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">0 </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">0 b </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">0 </td>
									<td style="text-align:left">0 b (-) </td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN3">
								<p>y Means with the same letter between columns are equal (p≤ 0.05).</p>
							</fn>
							<fn id="TFN4">
								<p>z 100 %) fungicidal activity, 0 %) fungistatic activity, and 0 (-) no activity.</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>The MIC assay for Carbendazim started at 11.38 ppm (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 2</xref>). However, when evaluating the fungicide’s effect and estimating the MLC, mycelial growth occurred when subcultured in fungicide-free PDA medium, suggesting a fungistatic rather than fungicidal effect. Different results were observed in isolates from papaya causing root rot, where this fungicide at 150 ppm inhibited mycelial growth by</p>
				<p>93.5 to 95.3% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Kumar <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>) and at 750 ppm inhibited 100% of <italic>F. solani</italic> growth causing tomato vascular wilt (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Ayvar-Serna <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). For Benomyl, the MIC was 14.06 ppm (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 2</xref>), inhibiting spore germination of <italic>F. solani</italic>. However, like Carbendazim, when evaluating the MLC, spores regained viability, showing mycelial growth, also suggesting a fungistatic effect at these doses. In studies with doses higher than 250 ppm, it inhibited 100% mycelial growth (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Coronel <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>). But in <italic>F. oxysporum</italic>, responsible for strawberry plant wilt and collapse, mycelial growth was inhibited at concentrations as low as 5 ppm (Vega-López and</p>
				<p>Granado-Montero, 2023). These findings suggest that fungicide effectiveness also depends on the species and strain of the phytopathogen. Carbendazim and Benomyl, classified as preventive and curative, inhibit motor proteins and the cytoskeleton, specifically in the assembly of β-tubulin during mitosis, affecting cell division, movement, appressorium formation, and overall mycelial growth (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Alburqueque and Gusqui, 2018</xref>; FRAC, 2024). Conversely, none of the evaluated concentrations of Fosetyl-Al showed antifungal activity, as fungal growth occurred, confirming the low effectiveness and selectivity of this active ingredient with oomicide effect (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Cristóbal-Alejo <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>). Although there are few cases of resistance in some phytopathogens, frequent use may reduce its effectiveness in controlling fungal phytopathogens (FRAC, 2024).</p>
				<p>For Captan and Mancozeb, the MIC was 7.81 ppm (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 2</xref>). At this concentration, spore germination of the fungus was inhibited up to the higher evaluated concentrations, as indicated by no change in resazurin staining in the microplates compared to the positive controls, where resazurin staining did change. However, in the assay to determine the fungicide’s effect and the MLC, only Mancozeb at this concentration showed an MLC effect on <italic>F. solani</italic>. There was no mycelial growth of the fungus at this and higher evaluated concentrations when subcultured in fungicide-free PDA medium from the microplates containing fungicide concentrations (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 2</xref>). This indicated that Mancozeb not only inhibited spore germination while in contact but also caused spore death, preventing mycelial development.</p>
				<p>In contrast, Captan allowed mycelial growth similar to the positive control, suggesting it only prevented spore germination while in contact in the microplates. These results suggest that although both fungicides are contact fungicides with multi-site action affecting spore germination (FRAC, 2024), concentration and exposure time might influence effectiveness. The 48-hour contact period with Captan was insufficient for cell penetration. Recent evaluations showed efficacy against <italic>Fusarium</italic> species. When tested against <italic>F. incarnatum</italic>, a fungus associated with grass seed damage, Captan and Mancozeb at concentrations of 200 and 300 ppm inhibited mycelial growth by 97.8% and 93%, respectively (Zárate-Ramos <italic>et al</italic>., 2021). Against <italic>F. falciforme</italic>, recently identified as a root and stem pathogen of soursop, concentrations of 12,500 and 10,000 ppm inhibited fungal growth by 95 to 100% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Cambero-Ayón <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). Additionally, Captan interferes with the fungal respiration mechanism, hindering germination and mycelial development, while Mancozeb modifies and inactivates redox-sensitive proteins involved in transcription, translation, and oxidative DNA stress (Zárate-Ramos <italic>et al</italic>., 2021) Finally, only Prochloraz and Mancozeb showed fungicidal effects, with no mycelial growth of F. solani observed during the MLC assay after 24 and 48 hours of subculturing in fungicide-free PDA medium, confirming spore death. In contrast,</p>
				<p>Carbendazim, Benomyl, and Captan exhibited fungistatic effects, as mycelial growth occurred during the MLC test after 24 and 48 hours of exposure in PDA medium without fungicide. This indicated that these fungicides did not kill the spores but only inhibited germination while in contact, with viability and growth resuming once removed from the fungicide medium (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 2</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 3</xref>).</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusions</title>
				<p>The morphotaxonomic characteristics and molecular sequence analysis of the isolates from stem and root necrosis and rots of <italic>C. odorata</italic> and <italic>S. macrophylla</italic> corresponded to <italic>F. solani</italic>. This species was thus associated as the probable biotic factor responsible for 30 to 50% of the estimated plant production losses by nurserymen in southeastern Mexico.</p>
				<p>Prochloraz and Mancozeb showed the best in vitro antifungal effects against <italic>F. solani</italic>, with average MIC and MLC values of 2.44 and 7.81 ppm, respectively.</p>
			</sec>
		</body>
	</sub-article>
</article>