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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">rmfi</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Revista mexicana de fitopatología</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Rev. mex. fitopatol</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">0185-3309</issn>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2007-8080</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedad Mexicana de Fitopatología A.C.</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.18781/R.MEX.FIT.2024-34</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Articles</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>The genus Bacillus as biological control agent against pests and pathogens for sustainable agricultura</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Parra-Cota</surname>
						<given-names>Fannie Isela</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">¹</xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Bruno</surname>
						<given-names>Isabeli</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">² </xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>García-Montelongo</surname>
						<given-names>Mónica</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">³</xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>González-Villarreal</surname>
						<given-names>Sebastián</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">⁴</xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Villarreal-Delgado</surname>
						<given-names>María Fernanda</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">⁵</xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Córdova-Albores</surname>
						<given-names>Liliana Carolina</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">⁶</xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Escalante-Beltrán</surname>
						<given-names>Alina</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">⁷</xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Santos-Villalobos</surname>
						<given-names>Sergio de los</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">⁸</xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<institution content-type="original">¹ Campo Experimental Norman E. Borlaug, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias, CP. 85000, Ciudad Obregón, Sonora, México.</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<postal-code>85000</postal-code>
					<city>Ciudad Obregón</city>
					<state>Sonora</state>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<institution content-type="original">² Área de Agrometeorología, Ecofisiología y Tecnología de Alimentos, Instituto de Desarrollo Rural de Paraná (IAPAR-EMATER), Londrina 86047-902, Brasil.</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Instituto de Desarrollo Rural de Paraná (IAPAR-EMATER)</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Instituto de Desarrollo Rural de Paraná (IAPAR-EMATER)</institution>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<institution content-type="original">³ Laboratorio Estatal de Salud Pública de Durango, 34206, Nombre de Dios 1206, José Ángel Leal, Durango, México.</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Laboratorio Estatal de Salud Pública de Durango</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Laboratorio Estatal de Salud Pública de Durango</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<postal-code>34206</postal-code>
					<state>Durango</state>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4">
				<institution content-type="original">⁴ Laboratorio Estatal de Salud Pública de Durango, 34206, Nombre de Dios 1206, José Ángel Leal, Durango, México.</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Laboratorio Estatal de Salud Pública de Durango</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Laboratorio Estatal de Salud Pública de Durango</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<postal-code>34206</postal-code>
					<city>José Ángel Leal</city>
					<state>Durango</state>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff5">
				<institution content-type="original">⁵ Sartorius de México, Libramiento Norte de Tepotzotlán, S/N Int. 5, CP 54605, Tepotzotlán, Estado de México.</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Sartorius de México</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Sartorius de México</institution>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff6">
				<institution content-type="original">⁶ Licenciatura en Agrobiotecnología, Centro Universitario del Sur, Universidad de Guadalajara, Enrique Arreola Silva No. 883, Ciudad Guzmán, Jalisco, México, CP 49000.</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidad de Guadalajara</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad de Guadalajara</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<city>Ciudad Guzmán</city>
					<state>Jalisco</state>
					<postal-code>49000</postal-code>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff7">
				<institution content-type="original">⁷ Instituto Tecnológico de Sonora, 5 de Febrero 818 Sur, Col. Centro, CP 85000, Ciudad Obregón, Sonora, México</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Instituto Tecnológico de Sonora</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Tecnológico de Sonora</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<postal-code>85000</postal-code>
					<city>Ciudad Obregón</city>
					<state>Sonora</state>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff8">
				<institution content-type="original">⁸ Instituto Tecnológico de Sonora, 5 de Febrero 818 Sur, Col. Centro, CP 85000, Ciudad Obregón, Sonora, México</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Instituto Tecnológico de Sonora</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Tecnológico de Sonora</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<postal-code>85000</postal-code>
					<city>Ciudad Obregón</city>
					<state>Sonora</state>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>19</day>
				<month>11</month>
				<year>2024</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<year>2024</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>42</volume>
			<issue>4</issue>
			<elocation-id>RMEXFIT202434</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>10</day>
					<month>07</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>08</day>
					<month>11</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>ABSTRACT:</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Background/Objective</title>
					<p>. Bacteria of the <italic>Bacillus</italic> genus have been studied since their discovery in 1872, for their ability to synthesize metabolites of interest such as proteins used to control phytopathogens. The objective of this research was to analyze the most outstanding species of the <italic>Bacillus</italic> genus, as well as the main compounds produced by these species, and the perspectives on the use of this bacterial genus for pest and disease control.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Materials and Methods. </title>
					<p>An exhaustive search was carried out in scientific articles and books to gather the most relevant information regarding the Bacillus genus, focusing on its role as a biological control agent for pests and pathogens.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Results</title>
					<p>. The <italic>Bacillus</italic> genus includes more than 427 taxa, which can be classified into different groups. Among the biological control agents (BCA) are the <italic>Bacillus</italic> cereus group, which includes <italic>B. cereus</italic>, <italic>B. anthracis</italic>, and <italic>B. thuringiensis</italic>, and the <italic>B. subtilis</italic> group, which includes <italic>B. subtilis</italic>, <italic>B. licheniformis</italic>, and <italic>B. pumilus</italic>, mainly. B<italic>. thuringiensis</italic>, through cry genes, has molecular mechanisms to synthesize a crystalline inclusion during sporulation, which contains proteins known as endotoxins or Cry proteins. <italic>B. subtilis</italic> produces substances with a high potential for biological control, such as volatile organic compounds, as well as bioactive secondary metabolites.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Conclusion</title>
					<p>. The potential of the <italic>Bacillus</italic> genus to be used as biological control agents is evident. They are widely used for the development of different biopesticides that have advantages over other products. However, it is necessary to continue conducting research from the <italic>in vitro</italic> area in the laboratory to the field, to help guarantee their biosecurity and effectiveness.</p>
				</sec>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>Beneficial bacteria</kwd>
				<kwd>sustainable agriculture</kwd>
				<kwd>biocontrol</kwd>
				<kwd>action modes.</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="8"/>
				<table-count count="0"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="71"/>
				<page-count count="0"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>The increase in the global population and the impact of climate change indicates that the food demand will double by 2050, which is currently satisfied by 80% by the agricultural sector (FAO, 2017). However, some of the factors that limit productivity and generate between 20 and 40% of losses in agricultural productivity are plant diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses, and nematodes) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">de los Santos-Villalobos <italic>et al.,</italic> 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">García-Montelongo <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). Due to the rising interest in controlling diseases of agricultural interest, the study and use of plant growth-promoting microorganisms (PGPM), as well as biological control agents (BCA) has grown in recent decades, as well as its use in the formulation of biopesticides incorporated in the Integrated Pest and Disease Management (IPDM). Conventionally, pests and diseases in plants are controlled with the use of chemical pesticides that contribute to the increase of environmental issues and consume a large volume of resources (de los Santos-Villalobos <italic>et al</italic>., 2021; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Montoya-Martínez <italic>et al</italic>., 2024</xref>). Microorganisms have a wide range of action mechanisms to protect plants and control pathogens. Some interact through competition for space and nutrients, parasitism, and antibiosis to interfere directly with the pathogen, whereas other interactions with plants can be produced by induced resistance (García-Montelongo <italic>et al</italic>., 2023). Through the bioprospecting of selected strains as BCAs, it is possible to identify metabolites of interest; these should be identified, characterized, purified and their biological properties evaluated, while also monitoring their biocontrol activity(Montoya-Martínez <italic>et al</italic>., 2024).</p>
			<p>One of the most widely studied groups of endophytic and rhizosphere bacteria isolated are bacilli since they have been characterized as potential BCAs. The synthesis of enzymes with antibiotic activity (subtilin, subtilosin A, TasA, sublancin) is one of their antagonistic abilities, as well as the production of non-ribosomal peptides, which are synthesized by non-ribosomal peptide synthetases, such as bacilysin, bacilysin, chlorotetain, difficidin, mycobacillin and some rhizocytokine (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Orozco-Mosqueda <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>).</p>
			<p><italic>Bacillus</italic> has currently been reported as the genus with the most strains used for the production of biopesticides, making up more than 85% of commercial bacterial products, due to their metabolic versatility which, via several biological mechanisms, helps it control pests and diseases (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">Villarreal-Delgado <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>).</p>
			<p>This revision has the aim of critically analyzing the use of bacteria of the <italic>Bacillus</italic> genus, its main action mechanisms against pests and diseases in plants, as well as its implementation, free of biosecurity hazards, via the development of bioinoculants, since the scientific support of these products on their action mechanisms, ecological and biosecurity implications and their formulation are decisive for the development of sustainable agriculture.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title><bold>THE <italic>Bacillus</italic> GENUS</bold></title>
			<p>The <italic>Bacillus</italic> genus was reported for the first time by Cohn (1872), who described it as bacteria that produce heat-resistant endospores (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">Villarreal-Delgado <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>). This bacterial genus, belonging to the Bacteria kingdom; Phylus Firmicutes; Class Bacilli; Order Bacillales, and Family Bacillaceae is characterized by its aerobic or anaerobic facultative growth, Gram-positive species, bacillary morphology, flagellar motility and variable size (0.5 to 10 μm), optimum growth at a neutral pH, and a variable optimal temperature range, although most species are mesophilic (they grow between 30 and 45 °C) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>). Its ability to produce endospores as a resistance mechanism is also noteworthy, and gives it the ability to prevail in ecosystems, even under adverse conditions (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">de los Santos-Villalobos <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">San Miguel-González <italic>et al</italic>., 2024</xref>).</p>
			<p>Currently, this genus includes over 427 taxons with a publicly validated name (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Parte <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). Taxons, due to their genetic similarity, can be classified into different groups, the main BCAs include the group of <italic>Bacillus subtilis</italic>, composed of <italic>B. subtilis, B. licheniformis,</italic> and <italic>B. pumilus</italic>, and the <italic>B. cereus</italic> group, which includes <italic>B. cereus, B. anthracis,</italic> and <italic>B. thuringiensis</italic>, mainly; a wide variety of species of the <italic>Bacillus</italic> genus has displayed antagonistic activity against different phytopathogenic microorganisms that affect crops such as maize, rice, and others (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">Villarreal-Delgado <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>).</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title><bold>
 <italic>Bacillus</italic> AS BIOINSECTICIDES</bold></title>
			<p>Biopesticides are a particular type of biological product, focused on the control of agricultural pests based on a living microorganism or a natural product (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">García De León and Mier, 2010</xref>). These may be classified into three types, according to the active substance: i) biochemical products, ii) semi-chemical products, and iii) microorganisms (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">Villarreal-Delgado <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>). The <italic>Bacillus</italic> genus has been</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f1">
					<label>Figure 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Macroscopic characteristics of <italic>Bacillus cereus</italic> (A) and <italic>B. subtilis</italic> (B), belonging to the Culture Collection of Native Soil and Endophytic Microorganisms, grown at 28 °C in nutrient agar (COLMENA) (www.itson. edu.mx/COLMENA) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">de los Santos-Villalobos <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>).</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-04-RMEXFIT202434-gf1.png"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>widely studied due to its ability to produce spores, which facilitates its storage, encapsulation, and later application on the field, its wide metabolic diversity related to its prevalence in ecosystems and its ability to reduce the incidence of pests and diseases in crops (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Santoyo <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">Valenzuela-Ruíz <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>).</p>
			<sec>
				<title><italic>Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)</italic></title>
				<p><italic>Bacillus thuringiensis</italic> (<italic>Bt</italic>), through <italic>cry</italic> genes, has molecular mechanisms to produce toxins; it synthesizes a crystalline inclusion during sporulation, which contains proteins known as endotoxins or Cry proteins (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Sarwar, 2015</xref>).</p>
				<p>Crickmore <italic>et al.</italic> (2016) have created a special database for <italic>Bt</italic> toxins, which includes links to information on host insects and is currently updating (https:// <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.bpprc.org/">www.bpprc.org/</ext-link> consulted on May 30th, 2024), in which around 950 genes of toxins that codify different etomopathogenic proteins in <italic>Bt</italic> strains isolated from different parts of the world (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Galvis and Moreno, 2018</xref>) have been identified and characterized. Most of these toxins, produced during the phase of sporulation, are parasporal inclusions; these contain crystalline proteins known as delta-endotoxins, classified into two families: Cry and Cyt (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Jouzani <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>).</p>
				<p>The δ-endotoxins (Cry) are toxic to a wide range of insect pests, such as Lepidoptera, Coleoptera and Diptera (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Maksimov <italic>et al.,</italic> 2020</xref>). <italic>Bt</italic> normally comprises a large family of several subspecies, each one categorized by different phylogenetic serotyped characteristics (such as <italic>Bt</italic> subsp. <italic>kurstaki</italic>, <italic>Bt</italic> subsp. <italic>aizawai</italic>, <italic>Bt</italic> subsp. <italic>tenebrionis</italic>, <italic>Bt</italic> subsp. <italic>israelensis</italic>, etc.); in addition, every subspecies of <italic>Bt</italic> includes multiple strains and serotypes(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Bravo <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>).</p>
				<p>In addition to the Cry proteins, other protein inclusions have been described, called Cyt proteins, which, unlike Cry proteins, have a much lower molecular mass (approximately 27 kDa) and also display cytolytic activity (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Bravo <italic>et al</italic>., 2007</xref>). Currently, over 300 <italic>cry</italic> genes have been reported from <italic>Bt</italic>, classifying into 73 Cry families and 3 Cyt families (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Porcar and Juárez, 2004</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">Xu <italic>et al.,</italic> 2014</xref>). Both Cry and Cyt proteins are produced during the sporulation phases and are known for their specific toxic effects on a large variety of invertebrates, mainly Diptera, Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, and nematodes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Pérez-García <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">Soberón <italic>et al</italic>., 2007</xref>).</p>
				<p>Cry proteins are highly specific regarding their form of action, and are present in sporangia in an inactive way. After the autolysis of the sporangium, the protein crystals are released, which become toxic after they are ingested by susceptible insects and partially digested in the midgut of the insect (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Bravo <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>). The action mechanism begins once the Cry proteins are proteolytically processed through proteases found in the midgut of the host, separating a section of amino acids in the N-terminal region and in the C-terminal end (depending on the nature of the Cry protein), thus releasing active and toxic fragments that interact with the receptor proteins found in the intestinal cells of the larva (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>). These fragments are recognized by the specific receptors in the membrane and inserted through the cadherin, giving succession to a series of signals for the formation of an oligomeric pre-porous structure, and consequently the lithic porous, through which an osmotic imbalance is produced, which finally destroys the intestinal epithelium and consequently, the death of the cell (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Portela-Dussán <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">Xu <italic>et al</italic>., 2014</xref>). It is important to mention that <italic>Bt</italic> is not responsible for the death of the insect <italic>per se</italic>, but once there is damage to the intestine of the insect, diverse bacteria of the intestine pass onto the hemolymph, and finally, the insect dies of septicemia. This action mechanism has been described in Lepidoptera, and other orders such as Coleoptera, nematodes, and Diptera, the mechanism has not been entirely elucidated (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Vachon <italic>et al</italic>., 2012</xref>). The key factors for this event are the presence of specific proteases, an alkaline environment, and the presence of specific receptors in the intestine of the insect, which explains that toxins are only effective in a small range of hosts and therefore often have a limited effect on non-target populations</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f2">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Cry proteins. 1-A) Primary structure, showing the organization of the domains of representative members from each Cry family, 2-A) Conserved tertiary structure, showing the positions of the three domains. B) Mechanism of action of Cry proteins in insects, initiating once the Cry proteins are proteolytically processed by proteases in the midgut of the host, separating an amino acid section in the N-terminal region and at the C-terminal end (depending on the nature of the Cry protein), thus releasing active and toxic fragments that interact with receptor proteins in the insect’s intestinal cells. Modified from <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">Villarreal-Delgado <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>.; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">de Maagd <italic>et al</italic>., 2001</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">Xu <italic>et al</italic>., 2014</xref>.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-04-RMEXFIT202434-gf2.png"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Cawoy <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>). Additionally, the genes that codify the Cry/Cyt proteins are activated during the sporulation because they are controlled by a polymerase RNA that is also specifically synthesized while the spores are formed (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Sanahuja <italic>et al.,</italic> 2011</xref>).</p>
				<p>Despite the diversity of amino acid sequences, all Cry proteins share a similar general tertiary structure, as noticed in the six structures solved so far using X-ray crystallography X (Cry1Aa, Cry2Aa, Cry3Aa, Cry3Bb, Cry4Aa, and Cry4Ba); the C-terminal portion is involved in the formation of crystals, but it is not a part of the mature toxin, since a large part of it lies in the gut of the insect; the N-terminal portion is the toxin itself and it comprises three domains: domain I is a set of seven α-helices, six of which are amphipathic and surrounds the seventh hydrophobic helix; this domain is responsible for the insertion of the membrane and the formation of lithic pores; domain II consists of three antiparallel β-sheets with exposed loop regions; domain III is a β-sandwich (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>); domains I and II confer receptor- binding specificity, which helps define the host range (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Boonserm <italic>et al</italic>., 2006</xref>). On the other hand, the Cyt proteins bind directly to the lipid bilayer of intestinal cells and are composed of a single domain consisting of a β-sheet surrounded by two α-helices (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Cohen <italic>et al</italic>., 2008</xref>, 2011).</p>
				<p>Diverse investigations have reported the potential of Cry proteins in controlling pests of agricultural importance. Niedmann and Meza-Basso (2006) displayed the potential of <italic>Bt</italic> for the control of the tomato leafminer (<italic>Tuta absoluta</italic>), highlighting that in tomato leaf trials added with Cry protein concentrates extracted from the <italic>Bt</italic> strains LM-11, LM-12, LM-14 and LM-33, a mortality of 20 of 60% of the <italic>T. absoluta</italic> larvae was achieved. Investigations have also been reported in which Cry protein extracts taken from the <italic>Bt</italic> strains LBIT-13, LBIT-44, LBIT-383, LBIT-418, and LBIT-428 proved to have a toxic effect on the fall armyworm (<italic>Spodoptera frugiperda</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Vázquez-Ramírez <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>).</p>
				<p>The use of <italic>Bt</italic> is not limited to the control of agricultural pests, since its serovariety <italic>B. thuringiensis</italic> subsp. <italic>israelensis</italic> (<italic>Bti</italic>), discovered by Goldberg and Margalit (1977) in the Negev desert in Israel, has been used and sold for its high activity for the control of mosquitos and other Diptera of medical importance. <italic>Bti</italic> synthesizes three Cry proteins (Cry4A, Cry4B, and Cry11A) and one Cyt protein (Cyt1A); this combination is attributed to the high toxicity of <italic>Bti,</italic> as well as the lack of reports of resistance generation in susceptible insects (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">da Silva Carvalho <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>).</p>
				<p>Vegetative insecticide proteins (Vip) are other interesting proteins derived from <italic>Bt</italic>, which are produced during the vegetative state of this bacteria. They include the binary toxin Vip1 and Vip2 with specificity against Coleoptera and Vip3 with a wide spectrum of activity against Lepidoptera. The insecticidal potential of Vip1/ Vip2 has been proven on different pests such as the Coleoptera <italic>Sitophilus zeamais</italic>, known as the stored grain pest, and of Vip3 against the larvae of the Lepidoptera <italic>Spodoptera frugiperda</italic> and <italic>Helicoverpa zea</italic>, as well as against the cotton bollworm, <italic>Helicoverpa armigera</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Mnif and Ghribi, 2015</xref>).</p>
				<p>Other less studied Bt insecticidal toxins include secreted insecticidal proteins (Sip), which are proteins of approximately 41 kDa with reported activity against Coleoptera, and the β-exotoxins. These, as in Sip proteins, are secreted during the vegetative phase. Nevertheless, β-exotoxins are secondary metabolites secreted only by certain strains of <italic>Bt.</italic> Its toxic effect is not limited to invertebrates, and can also be toxic to mammals, therefore the use of <italic>Bt</italic> strains able to synthesize</p>
				<p>β-exotoxins is restricted in several parts of the Americas and Europe (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Chattopadhyay and Banerjee, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Liu <italic>et al</italic>., 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Palma <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014</xref>).</p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title><bold>
 <italic>Bacillus</italic> AS BIOFUNGICIDES</bold></title>
			<p>Biofungicides in general can be defined as microorganisms or natural compounds that can control pathogens that cause diseases in plants (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Abbey <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). There are multiple reports regarding the mode of action of various fungicidal agents:</p>
			<p><italic>Competence</italic>, in which the bio-fungicidal agent competes for nutritional factors (such as nitrogen or carbon) with fungi, limiting their growth.</p>
			<p><italic>Antibiosis</italic>, in which there are antagonistic biological interactions between organisms. <italic>Parasitism</italic>, a symbiosis in which one of the organisms subsists from the other, causing deterioration.</p>
			<p><italic>Induction of resistance</italic>, a mechanism in which the plant is induced to adopt biological measures that avoid the spreading of pathogens (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">García-Montelongo <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Köhl <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>).</p>
			<p>Fungicides formulated with strains of the <italic>Bacillus</italic> genus offer several advantages over other microorganisms, as they form endospores and can tolerate extreme pH, temperature, and osmotic conditions. They can colonize the root surface, promote plant growth, and cause the lysis of fungal mycelium (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">El-Bendary <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>).</p>
			<sec>
				<title><italic>Bacillus subtilis</italic></title>
				<p><italic>Bacillus subtilis</italic> is one of the most widely studied and used species for its production of substances with a high potential for biological control, such as volatile organic compounds, as well as bioactive secondary metabolites (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Andrić <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). Among these substances, lantibiotics stand out; they are low molecularweight peptides. These are antibiotics with a high level of antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria, with subtilin being the most studied in the case of <italic>B. subtilis</italic>. This forms voltage-dependent pores in the cytoplasmic membranes of susceptible bacteria (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Klein and Entian, 1994</xref>). Other lantibiotics synthesized by <italic>B. subtilis</italic> include plantazolicin, with a high selectivity against <italic>B. anthracis</italic> and ericin (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Molohon <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Stein <italic>et al.,</italic> 2002</xref>). There are diverse antibiotics synthesized by <italic>B. subtilis,</italic> such as bacitracin, which acts mainly against Gram-positive bacteria by inhibiting the synthesis of peptidoglycan; bacilysin, which has activity against bacteria and fungi by inhibiting glucosamine synthesis and disrupting the formation of the microbial cell wall; and rhizocticin, an antibiotic with activity mainly against fungi by inhibiting threonine synthase, affecting the synthesis of proteins in susceptible fungi (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Borisova <italic>et al.,</italic> 2010</xref>; Molohon <italic>et al</italic>., 2016; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Rajavel <italic>et al</italic>., 2009</xref>; Stein <italic>et al</italic>., 2002).</p>
				<p>The repertoire of proteins of interest of <italic>B. subtilis</italic> also includes fengycins and iturins, which have an inhibiting effect on fungal growth and antagonistic activity with the cell membranes of fungi (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Caulier <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Other substances synthesized by <italic>B. subtilis</italic> with activity against plant pathogens are lipopeptides, low molecular- weight compounds with amphiphilic characteristics that protect plants by directly suppressing the growth of pathogens or inducing systemic resistance in host plants (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Hashem <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). It is worth noting that the substances synthesized by <italic>B. subtilis</italic> not only have activity on their own but also can induce an immune response in plants, making them less susceptible to infections (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Andrić <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>).</p>
				<p>The bacteria of the <italic>Bacillus subtilis</italic> species are widely studied for the biological control of phytopathogenic microorganisms, making their rational use easier; in this way, the United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) has granted this species the state “generally regarded as safe” (GRAS), thus being considered non-pathogenic (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Cawoy <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>). <italic>B. subtilis</italic> is a ubiquitous bacterial species found in various habitats and occupies diverse ecological niches. It has no history of pathogenicity by contact with the environment, thus proving to be a potential agent of biological control of phytopathogenic fungi, mosquitos, and harmful nematodes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Mnif and Ghribi, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Ongena and Jacques, 2008</xref>). The survival of <italic>B. subtilis</italic> in the rhizosphere and therefore its high efficiency as a biopesticide is due to its metabolic diversity (lytic enzymes and antimicrobial compounds) and its ability to produce spores (Cawoy <italic>et al</italic>., 2011).</p>
				<p>Diverse studies have reported the larvicide potential of metabolites (lipo- peptides) derived from <italic>B. subtilis</italic>, which have been used in effective formulations for the control of <italic>Drosophila melanogaster</italic>, the Diptera <italic>Culex quinquefasciatus</italic>, <italic>Anopheles stephensi,</italic> and <italic>Aedes aegypti</italic>, as well as the Lepidoptera <italic>Prays oleae</italic>, <italic>Spodoptera littoralis</italic> and <italic>Ephestia kuehniella</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Mnif and Ghribi, 2015</xref>). Geetha and Manonmani (2008), reported that the pupal stages of <italic>A. stephensi</italic>, <italic>C. quinquefasciatus,</italic> and <italic>A. aegypti</italic> [LC50: 2, 7.3 and 11.8 mg mL<sup>-1</sup>, respectively] turned out to be more susceptible to the mosquitocidal lipopeptide that larval stages [LC50: 19, 23 y 34 mg mL<sup>-1</sup>, respectivamente]; a noteworthy aspect of these insecticidal compounds is the report of its stability and that they maintain their larvicidal, pupicidal and adulticidal ability under conditions such as an extreme pH, high temperatures, solar radiation/UV, as well as the action of proteases (Geetha and Manonmani, 2010; Ghribi <italic>et al</italic>., 2012).</p>
				<p>On the other hand, other species of the <italic>Bacillus</italic> genus have been reported to have the ability for biological control. For example, <italic>Bacillus cereus</italic> is a spore- forming bacteria, widely distributed in the soil and used as a BCA. <italic>B. cereus</italic> is a natural facultative pathogen of <italic>A. aegypti</italic>, the main vector for chikungunya and dengue since they can colonize the guts of the larvae of the insects. The insecticidal activity of <italic>B. cereus</italic> against <italic>A. aegypti</italic> larvae was approximately 90%, with the lethal concentration (LC50) being 2.5 ± 0.71 mg mL<sup>-1</sup> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Radhika <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>). In addition, new species of this genus with interesting metabolic abilities may lead to potential antagonistic bioproducts into phytopathogens. <italic>B. cabrialesii</italic> is a new species of <italic>Bacillus</italic>, characterized as an endophytic of the wheat crop. Although this strain has displayed biocontrol to <italic>Bipolaris sorokiniana</italic>, its strategies as a plant growth promoter (phosphorous solubilizer, producer of indoles, increase in chlorophyll) may make its use even more interesting, to reduce the use, not only of synthetic pesticides, but also of the fertilization doses (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">de los Santos-Villalobos <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">Valenzuela-Aragón <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">Villa-Rodríguez <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>).</p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title><bold>COMMERCIAL USE OF <italic>Bacillus</italic>
</bold></title>
			<p>Microbial pesticides offer advantages over other groups of pesticides, including those derived from fungi and plants and zooids, since the organisms used in the microbial insecticides are, in general terms, essentially not toxic or pathogenic for wildlife, humans, or other organisms not broadly related to the target pest. In addition, they do not damage the environment or water quality and they offer an eco-friendlier alternative then chemical pesticides (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Chandler <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Sarwar, 2015</xref>). On the other hand, most microbial insecticides can be used alongside synthetic chemical insecticides because in most cases the microbial product is not deactivated or damaged by the effect of conventional insecticides (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Mnif and Ghribi, 2015</xref>). Likewise, they may have a dual effect on the crops, since most BCAs have other mechanisms that improve the acquisition of nutrients and/or the development of the plant, as well as the soil properties, and also display the ability to stimulate the defense and other physiological processes of the plants, which may lead the treated crops to become more resistant to a variety of biotic and abiotic stress factors (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Borriss, 2011</xref>; Sarwar, 2015). Additionally, biopesticides may be used when pests develop resistance to conventional pesticides.</p>
			<p>An organism must fulfill several requirements before being released into the environment as a potential biopesticide, the most outstanding of which is that it must i) be highly specific and effective against the target pest, ii) display the potential to be processed successfully by a continuous production technology, iii) be available in formulations with a reasonable shelf life, iv) display stability and be harmless for humans, flora and non-target fauna (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Menéndez and Paço, 2020</xref>). The <italic>Bacillus</italic> genus has been used as a model of study for agrobiotechnology for having different characteristics (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f3">
					<label>Figure 3</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Characteristics of interest of <italic>Bacillus</italic> spp. for the formulation of bioinoculants.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-04-RMEXFIT202434-gf3.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>For example, <italic>Bacillus thuringiensis</italic> (<italic>Bt</italic>) has been used as a biopesticide in agriculture, forestry, and the control of vectors of human diseases. Its advantages are the specific toxicity against target insects, the lack of polluting residues, and the safety of non-target organisms such as mammals, birds, amphibians, and reptiles (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Sansinenea, 2012</xref>). Currently, products based on <italic>B. thuringiensis</italic> represent over 70% of the biopesticides sold globally (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">Valenzuela Ruiz <italic>et al</italic>., 2024</xref>). Most <italic>Bt</italic> formulations are obtained from different strains, including <italic>B. thuringiensis</italic> subsp. <italic>kurstaki</italic> (Btk) strain HD1 (Cry1Aa, Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac and Cry2Aa); <italic>B. thuringiensis</italic> subsp. <italic>kurstaki</italic> (Btk) strain HD73 (Cry1Ac); <italic>B. thuringiensis</italic> subsp.</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f4">
					<label>Figure 4</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Evolution of the <italic>Bacillus</italic> genus as a biopesticide in the industry.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-04-RMEXFIT202434-gf4.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p><italic>aizawai</italic> strain HD137 (Cry1Aa, Cry1B, Cry1Ca, and Cry1Da); <italic>B. thuringiensi</italic>s subsp. <italic>tenebrionis</italic> (Cry3Aa) and <italic>B. thuringiensis</italic> subsp. <italic>israelensis</italic> (Cry4A, Cry4B, Cry11A, and Cyt1A) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Mnif y Ghribi, 2015</xref>). In Mexico, the use of <italic>Bt</italic>-based formulas represents an efficient alternative for the control of insects, presenting a percentage of use between 4 and 10% of the total insecticides used for the maize, cotton, and vegetable crops (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">Tamez Guerra <italic>et al</italic>., 2001</xref>). Additionally, other species of the <italic>Bacillus</italic> genus, such as <italic>B</italic>. <italic>subtilis</italic>, <italic>B. cereus,</italic> and <italic>B. licheniformis</italic> have also shown their insecticidal potential to control agricultural crop pests and vectors of human diseases (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">Villarreal-Delgado <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>).</p>
			<p>In recent years, the chemical pesticide production market has declined by 2% per annum, whereas the production of biopesticides displays an annual increase of 20% (Cheng <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020). Among the reasons behind the growing interest in biopesticides is the low probability of pathogenic organisms developing resistance, the reduction in the discovery of new insecticides, a greater public awareness regarding the risks of synthetic pesticides, an increase in studies on the specificity of biopesticides, advances in the production and technology of formulations and dissemination, as well as a better interaction with farmers and regulating authorities (Olson <italic>et al.</italic>, 2013; Olson, 2015).</p>
			<p>It is important to highlight that the transition and integration of biopesticides in current agricultural practices must comply with certain requirements: a) effectiveness against the pest or disease, b) compatibility with other control methods, c) low or no environmental impact, d) long-lasting effect on the surroundings, e) profitability from the cost/benefit point of view, f) technical viability of its use, and g) acceptance by farmers and society in general. Therefore, its use is an opportunity to boost the development and modernization of current agricultural practices, contributing to food security through biosafety approaches (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">Villarreal-Delgado <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>).</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Current and future challenges of the use of the genus</title>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title><bold>
 <italic>Bacillus</italic> IN AGRICULTURE</bold></title>
			<p>There are key issues to improve the efficiency of biopesticides and the consistency of protection, among which strain selection stands out, as the most commonly used method is currently in vitro screening, due to it being easy to implement. It presents the disadvantage that it generally does not take into account the environmental conditions in which it will be used, making it necessary to optimize the selection process by using more realistic methods that include the linking of field observations and verifiable parameters (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Cawoy <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>).</p>
			<p>Another aspect that must be taken into account to improve the efficiency of the biopesticides is the agro-system, that is, finding adequate combinations between biopesticides, chemical pesticides, plant fertilization, agricultural practices such as different types of tilling, as well as integrating them into a MIPE that includes cultivation practices, plant resistance, chemical control and other BCAs (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Cawoy <italic>et al.,</italic> 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Pérez-García <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">Van Der Heijden <italic>et al.,</italic> 2008</xref>). The formulation and application methods are also key aspects worth considering that directly influence the efficiency of the biopesticides. For this, it is important to perform investigations on their application in specific environments, as well as to add compounds or other microorganisms to the formulations that are biocompatible and optimize the biological control activity (Cawoy <italic>et al</italic>., 2011; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Correa <italic>et al</italic>., 2009</xref>). Likewise, it is necessary to study tolerance to heat, desiccation, exposure to ultraviolet radiation, as well as other types of stress that reduce the effectiveness of microbial insecticides. Consequently, special formulation, application, and storage procedures are needed for some microbial pesticides (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Chandler <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>).</p>
			<p>We can therefore specify that every BCA is a particular organism that carries out its action in a specific way, in which the studies of each selected microbial strain must be deepened to increase knowledge on how to enhance its biological control through effective formulation, considering ecological risk aspects and biosafety for the agro-system. It is therefore also necessary to delve deep into the correct identification of the BCA to discard the use of strains that may be pathogenic to humans. Particularly, within the group of <italic>Bacillus cereus</italic>, which includes species such as <italic>B. cereus</italic>, <italic>B. thuringiensis</italic>, <italic>B. anthracis</italic>, <italic>B. mycoides</italic>, <italic>B. seudomycoides</italic>, <italic>B. cytotoxicus</italic> and <italic>B. weihenstephanensis</italic>, some strains have been identified as pathogenic to humans (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">Villarreal-Delgado <italic>et al.,</italic> 2018</xref>).</p>
			<p>The virulence of these species has been mainly associated with the presence of two toxins: hemolysin BL (HBL) and the non-hemolytic enteric toxin (NHE), which form a protein complex (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Kim <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>). In addition, other toxins have been found in pathogenic strains, including cytotoxin K (<italic>cytK</italic>), enterotoxin FM (<italic>entFM</italic>), enterotoxin S (<italic>entS</italic>), and enterotoxin T (<italic>bceT</italic>). Also involved in the pathogenicity of these strains are strains produced by other genes, such as hemolysin A (<italic>hlyA</italic>), hemolysin II and III (<italic>hlyI, hlyII</italic>), cereolysin A and B (<italic>cerA, cerB)</italic>, and the pleiotropic transcription factor (<italic>pclR</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Ceuppens <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>).</p>
			<p>The classification and differentiation of species within the <italic>Bacillus cereus</italic> group have been carried out using gene 16S rRNA and other characteristics such as i) virulence (<italic>B. cereus</italic>), ii) content of plasmids (<italic>B. anthracis</italic> and <italic>B. thuringiensis</italic>), iii) growth conditions (<italic>B. cytotoxicus</italic> and <italic>B. weihenstephanensis</italic>) and iv) morphological characteristics (<italic>B. mycoides</italic> and <italic>B. seudomycoides</italic>). However, the differentiation between broadly related species, such as <italic>B. cereus</italic>, <italic>B. anthracis,</italic> and <italic>B. thuringiensis</italic>, is limited when virulence and plasmid content factors are used, due to the loss and transfer of these elements throughout their evolutionary history (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Hoffmaster <italic>et al</italic>., 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Liu <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>). Recent comparative studies of complete genomes using digital DNA-DNA Hybridization (dDDH) revealed a wide distribution of <italic>cry</italic> genes and pXO plasmids in members of this group. These studies proved that there is a low correlation between the phylogenetic position and the presence or absence of these plasmids; they also showed that the multi-locus analysis (MLST) has a low resolution for the differentiation at a species level (Liu <italic>et al</italic>., 2015).</p>
			<p>To select and market the BCA of these species, it is necessary to identify and determine their virulence for human beings. The detection of the potential risk of these species can be carried out through taxonomy and β-hemolytic activity studies, and detection with defined virulence molecular markers, but the only accurate alternative for the classification and determination of its virulence is with the comparative genomic study using complete genomes. However, it is important to consider that these are costly tools, but as the genome sequences become more widely available, more in-depth studies can be conducted to ensure the biosafe strains in agriculture.</p>
			<p>On the other hand, because the use of biopesticides has become highly relevant in the agricultural sector, which generally implies the application of large populations of the microorganism of interest to boost its establishment and colonization, studies on the environmental impact of the introduction of a BCA into agro-systems is necessary. This is because, under certain conditions, they may cause changes in the microbial communities with agro-ecologically unpredictable results, especially when BCAs are inoculated since their biological activity is not generally specific or selective for the phytopathogenic in question, which may lead to unpredictable changes in the microbial structure of these agro-systems (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">Trabelsi and Mhamdi, 2013</xref>). Therefore, it is important to monitor the impact of inoculating biological control agents on the structure and composition of microbial communities in agro- systems to ensure ecological balance, in addition to the desired insecticidal effect.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
		<ack>
			<title>Acknowledgments</title>
			<p> </p>
			<p> </p>
			<p>The authors would like to thank the National Institute of Forestry, Agriculture and Livestock Research (INIFAP) for funding the research project “Native soil microorganisms as a strategy to increase tolerance to biotic and abiotic stress in cereals” (11175835959). They also thank the funds provided by the Technological Institute of Sonora (PROFAPI_2024_0001), as well as the members of the Microbial Resources Biotechnology Laboratory (www.itson.mx/LBRM).</p>
		</ack>
		<ref-list>
			<title>Literatura citada</title>
			<ref id="B1">
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	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="es">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Articles</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>El género <italic>Bacillus</italic> como agente de control biológico de plagas y patógenos para una agricultura sostenible</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumen</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Antecedentes/Objetivo. </title>
					<p>Las bacterias del género <italic>Bacillus</italic> han sido estudiadas des- de su descubrimiento en 1872, por su capacidad de sintetizar metabolitos de interés como las proteínas utilizadas para el control fitopatógenos. El objetivo de la pre- sente investigación fue analizar las especies más destacadas del género <italic>Bacillus</italic>, así como los principales compuestos producidos por éstas, y las perspectivas en el empleo de este género bacteriano para el control de plagas y enfermedades.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Materiales y Métodos. </title>
					<p>Se realizó una exhaustiva búsqueda en artículos y libros científicos para reunir y analizar críticamente la información más relevante respec- to al género <italic>Bacillus</italic> sobre su papel como agente de control biológico.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Resultados. </title>
					<p>El género <italic>Bacillus</italic> incluye más de 427 taxones, los cuales pueden clasificarse en distintos grupos, destacando entre los agentes de control biológico (ACB) el grupo de <italic>Bacillus cereus</italic>, que incluye a <italic>B. cereus, B. anthracis,</italic> y <italic>B. thu- ringiensis</italic> y el grupo <italic>B. subtilis</italic>, comprendido por <italic>B. subtilis, B. licheniformis</italic> y <italic>B. pumilus</italic>, principalmente. <italic>B. thuringiensis</italic>, a través de genes <italic>cry</italic>, posee mecanismos moleculares para sintetizar una inclusión cristalina durante la esporulación, que contiene proteínas conocidas como endotoxinas o proteínas Cry. <italic>Bacillus subtilis</italic> produce sustancias con un alto potencial de control biológico, como lo son los com- puestos orgánicos volátiles, así como metabolitos secundarios bioactivos.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Conclusión. </title>
					<p>Es evidente el potencial del género <italic>Bacillus</italic> para ser empleados como agentes de control biológico, son muy utilizados para el desarrollo de distintos bioplaguicidas que presentan ventajas sobre otros productos, sin embargo, es ne- cesario continuar realizando investigaciones desde el área <italic>in vitro</italic> en el laboratorio hasta el campo, para contribuir a garantizar su bioseguridad y efectividad.</p>
				</sec>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
				<title>Palabras clave<italic>:</italic></title>
				<kwd>Bacterias benéficas</kwd>
				<kwd>agricultura sostenible</kwd>
				<kwd>biocontrol</kwd>
				<kwd>mecanismos de acción.</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introducción</title>
				<p>El incremento de la población humana a nivel mundial y el impacto del cambio climático indica que la demanda de alimentos se duplicará para el año 2050, la cual actualmente se satisface en un 80% por el sector agrícola (FAO, 2017). Sin embargo, algunos de los factores que limitan la productividad y generan entre un 20 y 40% de pérdidas en la producción agrícola son las enfermedades en las plantas causadas por hongos, bacterias, virus y nemátodos) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">de los Santos-Villalobos <italic>et al.,</italic> 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">García-Montelongo <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). Debido al interés emergente de controlar enfermedades de importancia agrícola, el estudio y uso de microorganismos pro- motores de crecimiento vegetal (MPCV), así como agentes de control biológico (ACB) ha crecido en las últimas décadas así como su empleo en la formulación de bioplaguicidas incorporados en el Manejo Integral de Plagas y Enfermedades (MIPE). Convencionalmente, las plagas y enfermedades de las plantas se controlan mediante el uso de pesticidas químicos que contribuyen al aumento de problemas ambientales y consumen un gran volumen de recursos (de los Santos-Villalobos <italic>et al</italic>., 2021; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Montoya-Martínez <italic>et al</italic>., 2024</xref>).</p>
				<p>Los microorganismos poseen una amplia diversidad de mecanismos de acción</p>
				<p>para proteger a las plantas y controlar patógenos. Algunos interactúan a través de competencia de espacio y nutrientes, parasitismo y antibiosis para interferir direc- tamente con el patógeno, mientras que otras interacciones con las plantas se pueden dar por resistencia inducida (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">García-Montelongo <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). Mediante la biopros- pección de cepas seleccionadas como ACB se pueden identificar metabolitos de interés; éstos deben de ser identificados, caracterizados, purificados y con sus pro- piedades biológicas evaluadas, asimismo contar con un monitoreo en su actividad biocontroladora (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Montoya-Martínez <italic>et al</italic>., 2024</xref>).</p>
				<p>Uno de los grupos de bacterias endofíticas y rizosféricas aisladas más estudiados son los bacilos, ya que han sido caracterizados como potenciales ACB. La síntesis de enzimas con actividad antibiótica (subtilina, subtilosina A, TasA, sublancina) es una de sus habilidades antagónicas, así como la producción de péptidos de origen no ribosómico, los cuales son sintetizados por péptidos sintetasas no ribosómicas, como bacilena, bacilisina, clorotetaina, difficidina, micobacilina y algunas rizoci- tocinas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Orozco-Mosqueda <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>).</p>
				<p>Actualmente, se ha reportado que <italic>Bacillus</italic> es el género con cepas más utilizadas para la producción de bioplaguicidas, componiendo más del 85% de los productos bacterianos comerciales, esto debido a su gran versatilidad metabólica que, me- diante diversos mecanismos biológicos, le permite controlar plagas y enfermedades (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">Villarreal-Delgado <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>).</p>
				<p>La presente revisión tiene como objetivo analizar críticamente el uso bacterias del género <italic>Bacillus</italic>, sus principales mecanismos de acción contra plagas y enfermedades en plantas, así como su implementación, sin riesgos a la bio- seguridad, mediante el desarrollo de bioinoculantes, ya que el sustento científico de estos productos sobre sus mecanismos de acción, implicaciones ecológicas y de bioseguridad y su formulación son determinantes para el desarrollo de una agricultura sustentable.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title><bold>El género <italic>Bacillus</italic>
</bold></title>
				<p>El género <italic>Bacillus</italic> fue reportado por primera vez por Cohn (1872), quien lo describió como bacterias productoras de endosporas resistentes al calor (Villarreal- Delgado <italic>et al</italic>., 2018). Este género bacteriano, perteneciente al Reino Bacteria; Filo Firmicutes; Clase Bacilli; Orden Bacillales y Familia Bacillaceae. Se caracteriza por su crecimiento aerobio o anaerobio facultativo, especies Gram positivas, mor- fología bacilar, movilidad flagelar, y tamaño variable (0.5 a 10 μm), crecimiento óptimo a pH neutro, un rango de temperatura óptima variable, aunque la mayoría de las especies son mesófilas (crecen entre 30 y 45 ⁰C) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figura 1</xref>). También destaca su capacidad de producir endosporas como mecanismo de resistencia, lo cual le confiere la capacidad de prevalecer en los ecosistemas aún bajo condiciones adver- sas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">de los Santos-Villalobos <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">San Miguel-González <italic>et al</italic>., 2024</xref>).</p>
				<p>Actualmente, este género incluye más de 427 taxones con un nombre válida- mente publicado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Parte <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). Los taxones, por su similitud genética, pueden clasificarse en distintos grupos, destacando entre los ACB el grupo de <italic>Bacillus subtilis</italic>, comprendido por <italic>B. subtilis, B. licheniformis</italic> y <italic>B. pumilus</italic>, y el grupo de <italic>B. cereus</italic>, que incluye a <italic>B. cereus, B. anthracis,</italic> y <italic>B. thuringiensis</italic>, principalmente; una amplia variedad de especies del género <italic>Bacillus</italic> ha mostrado actividad antagó- nica contra diferentes microorganismos fitopatógenos que afectan cultivos agríco- las como el maíz, el arroz, entre otros (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">Villarreal-Delgado <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f5">
						<label>Figura 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Características macroscópicas de <italic>Bacillus cereus</italic> (A) y <italic>B. subtilis</italic> (B), pertenecientes a la Colección de Microorganismos Edáficos y Endófitos Nativos, crecidas a 28 °C en agar nutritivo (COLMENA) (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www/">www.</ext-link> itson.edu.mx/COLMENA) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">de los Santos-Villalobos <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>).</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-04-RMEXFIT202434-gf5.png"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title><bold>
 <italic>Bacillus</italic> COMO BIOINSECTICIDAS</bold></title>
				<p>Los bioplaguicidas son un tipo particular de productos biológicos, enfocados en el control de plagas agrícolas a base de un microorganismo vivo o un producto natural (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">García De León y Mier, 2010</xref>). Éstos pueden ser clasificados en tres tipos de acuer- do con la sustancia activa: i) productos bioquímicos, ii) productos semi-químicos, y iii) microorganismos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">Villarreal-Delgado <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>). El género <italic>Bacillus</italic> ha sido ampliamente estudiado debido a su capacidad de producir esporas, lo cual facilita su almacenamiento, encapsulación y posterior aplicación en campo, su amplia di- versidad metabólica relacionada con su prevalencia en ecosistemas y su habilidad de reducir la incidencia de plagas y enfermedades en cultivos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Santoyo <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">Valenzuela-Ruíz <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>).</p>
				<sec>
					<title><italic>Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)</italic></title>
					<p><italic>Bacillus thuringiensis</italic> (<italic>Bt</italic>), a través de genes <italic>cry</italic>, posee mecanismos moleculares para producir toxinas; ésta sintetiza una inclusión cristalina durante la esporulación, que contiene proteínas conocidas como endotoxinas o proteínas Cry (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Sarwar, 2015</xref>).</p>
					<p>Crickmore <italic>et al.</italic> (2016) han creado una base de datos especial para toxinas de <italic>Bt</italic>, la cual incluye enlaces a información sobre insectos hospedadores y se actualiza continuamente (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.bpprc.org/">https://www.bpprc.org/</ext-link> consultado el 30 de mayo de 2024), donde se han identificado y caracterizado alrededor de 950 genes de toxinas que codifican diferentes proteínas entomopatógenas en cepas de <italic>Bt</italic> aisladas de diversas partes del mundo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Galvis y Moreno, 2018</xref>). La mayoría de estas toxinas, producidas duran- te la fase de esporulación, son inclusiones parasporales; éstas contienen proteínas cristalinas conocidas como delta-endotoxinas, clasificadas en dos familias: Cry y Cyt (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Jouzani <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>).</p>
					<p>Las δ-endotoxinas (Cry) son tóxicas para una amplia variedad de plagas de in- sectos, como lepidópteros, coleópteros y dípteros (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Maksimov <italic>et al.,</italic> 2020</xref>). <italic>Bt</italic> nor- malmente comprende una gran familia de varias subespecies, cada una categoriza- da por características filogenéticas y serotipadas distintas (como <italic>Bt</italic> subsp. <italic>kurstaki</italic>, <italic>Bt</italic> subsp. <italic>aizawai</italic>, <italic>Bt</italic> subsp. <italic>tenebrionis</italic>, <italic>Bt</italic> subsp. <italic>isarelensis</italic>, etc.); además, cada subespecie de <italic>Bt</italic> incluye múltiples cepas y serotipos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Bravo <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>).</p>
					<p>Además de las proteínas Cry, se han descrito otras inclusiones proteicas denomi- nadas proteínas Cyt, las cuales a diferencia de las proteínas Cry, tienen una mucho menor masa molecular (aproximadamente 27 kDa) y además presentan actividad citolítica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Bravo <italic>et al</italic>., 2007</xref>). Actualmente se han reportado más de 300 genes <italic>cry</italic> de <italic>Bt</italic>, clasificándose en 73 familias Cry y 3 familias Cyt (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Porcar &amp; Juárez, 2004</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">Xu et al., 2014</xref>). Tanto las proteínas Cry como las proteínas Cyt son producidas durante la fase de esporulación, y son conocidas por sus efectos tóxicos específicos sobre una gran variedad de invertebrados, principalmente dípteros, lepidópteros, coleópteros y nemátodos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Pérez-García <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">Soberón <italic>et al</italic>., 2007</xref>).</p>
					<p>Las proteínas Cry son altamente específicas con respecto a su modo de acción, están presentes en los esporangios en una forma inactiva. Tras la autolisis del espo- rangio se liberan los cristales de proteína, los cuales una vez ingeridos por insectos susceptibles y digeridos parcialmente en el intestino medio del insecto, se vuelven tóxicas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Bravo <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>). El mecanismo de acción inicia una vez que las pro- teínas Cry son procesadas proteolíticamente a través de proteasas presentes en el intestino medio del hospedero, separando una sección de aminoácidos en la región N-terminal y en el extremo C-terminal (dependiendo de la naturaleza de la proteína Cry), liberando así fragmentos activos y tóxicos que interactúan con las proteínas receptoras presentes en células intestinales de la larva (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 2</xref>). Estos fragmentos son reconocidos por receptores específicos en la membrana, e insertados a través de la caderina, dando sucesión a una serie de señales para la formación de una estruc- tura oligomérica pre-poro, y consecuentemente el poro lítico, por el cual se efectúa un desequilibrio osmótico, que finalmente destruye el epitelio intestinal y en consi- guiente la muerte celular (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Portela-Dussán <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">Xu <italic>et al</italic>., 2014</xref>).</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f6">
							<label>Figura 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Proteínas Cry. 1-A) Estructura primaria, mostrando la organización de los dominios de miembros representativos de cada familia Cry, 2-A) Estructura terciaria conservada, mostrando las posiciones de los tres dominios. B) Mecanismo de acción de las proteínas Cry en insectos, iniciando una vez que las proteínas Cry son procesadas proteolíticamente por proteasas en el intestino medio del hospedero, separando una sección de aminoácidos en la región N-terminal y en el extremo C-terminal (dependiendo de la naturaleza de la proteína Cry), liberando así fragmentos activos y tóxicos que interactúan con las proteínas receptoras presentes en células intestinales del insecto. Modificado de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">Villarreal-Delgado <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018</xref>.; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">de Maagd <italic>et al</italic>., 2001</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">Xu <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014</xref>.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-04-RMEXFIT202434-gf6.png"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>Es importante mencionar que <italic>Bt</italic> no es el responsable de la muerte del insecto <italic>per se</italic>, sino que una vez que ocurre daño en el intestino del insecto, diversas bac- terias del intestino pasan a la hemolinfa, y finalmente el insecto muere por septice- mia. Este mecanismo de acción ha sido descrito en lepidópteros, y en otros órdenes como coleópteros, nemátodos y dípteros el mecanismo no ha sido elucidado en su totalidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Vachon <italic>et al</italic>., 2012</xref>). Los factores clave para este evento son la presencia de proteasas específicas, un ambiente alcalino y la presencia de receptores especí- ficos en el intestino del insecto, lo cual explica que las toxinas solo son efectivas en un pequeño rango de hospedadores y, por lo tanto, a menudo tienen un efecto limitado en poblaciones no objetivo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Cawoy <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>). Además, los genes que codifican las proteínas Cry/Cyt se activan durante la esporulación porque están controlados por una ARN polimerasa que también se sintetiza específicamente mientras se forman las esporas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Sanahuja <italic>et al.,</italic> 2011</xref>).</p>
					<p>A pesar de la diversidad de secuencias de aminoácidos, todas las proteínas Cry comparten una estructura terciaria general similar, como se ha observado en las seis estructuras resueltas hasta ahora mediante cristalografía de rayos X (Cry1Aa, Cry2Aa, Cry3Aa, Cry3Bb, Cry4Aa y Cry4Ba); la porción C-terminal está invo- lucrada en la formación de cristales, pero no es parte de la toxina madura, ya que gran parte de esta se escinde en el intestino del insecto; la porción N-terminal es la toxina misma, y comprende tres dominios: el dominio I es un conjunto de siete hélices α, seis de las cuales son anfipáticas y rodean a la séptima hélice hidrofóbica, este dominio es responsable de la inserción de la membrana y la formación de po- ros líticos; el dominio II consta de tres hojas β antiparalelas con regiones de bucle expuestas; el dominio III es un β-sándwich (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 2</xref>); los dominios I y II confieren especificidad de unión al receptor, lo que ayuda a definir el rango de hospederos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Boonserm <italic>et al</italic>., 2006</xref>). Por otra parte, las proteínas Cyt se unen directamente a la bicapa lipídica de las células intestinales y están conformadas por un solo dominio compuesto por una hoja β rodeada por dos hélices α (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Cohen <italic>et al</italic>., 2008</xref>, 2011).</p>
					<p>Existen diversas investigaciones donde se ha reportado el potencial de las proteínas Cry para el control de plagas de importancia agrícola. Niedmann y Meza- Basso (2006), demostraron el potencial de <italic>Bt</italic> para el control de la polilla del tomate (<italic>Tuta absoluta</italic>), destacando que en ensayos en hojas de tomate adicionadas con concentrados de proteínas Cry extraídas de las cepas LM-11, LM-12, LM-14 y LM-33 de <italic>Bt</italic>, se logró la mortalidad entre un 20 y 60% de las larvas de <italic>T. abso- luta</italic>. También, se han reportado investigaciones donde extractos de proteínas Cry obtenidos de las cepas LBIT-13, LBIT-44, LBIT-383, LBIT-418 y LBIT-428 de <italic>Bt</italic>, demostraron tener un efecto tóxico en el gusano cogollero del maíz (<italic>Spodoptera frugiperda</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Vázquez-Ramírez <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>).</p>
					<p>El uso de <italic>Bt</italic> no se limita al control de plagas agrícolas, ya que su serovariedad <italic>B. thuringiensis</italic> subsp. <italic>israelensis</italic> (<italic>Bti</italic>) descubierta por Goldberg y Margalit (1977) en el desierto de Negev, en Israel, ha sido utilizada y comercializada por su alta actividad para el control de mosquitos y otros dípteros de importancia médica. <italic>Bti</italic> sintetiza tres proteínas Cry (Cry4A, Cry4B y Cry11A) y una proteína Cyt (Cyt1A), a dicho conjunto se le atribuye la alta toxicidad de <italic>Bti,</italic> así como la carencia de re- portes de generación de resistencia en insectos susceptibles (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">da Silva Carvalho <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>).</p>
					<p>Las proteínas insecticidas vegetativas (Vip por sus siglas en inglés) son otras proteínas interesantes derivadas de <italic>Bt</italic>, las cuales son producidas durante la etapa vegetativa de esta bacteria. Incluyen la toxina binaria Vip1 y Vip2 con especificidad contra coleópteros y Vip3 con un amplio espectro de actividad contra lepidópteros. Se ha demostrado el potencial insecticida de Vip1/Vip2 sobre diferentes plagas como el coleóptero <italic>Sitophilus zeamais</italic>, conocido como la plaga de granos almacenados, y de Vip3 contra las larvas de lepidópteros, <italic>Spodoptera frugiperda</italic> y <italic>Helicoverpa zea</italic>, así como contra el gusano bellotero del algodón, <italic>Helicoverpa armigera</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Mnif y Ghribi, 2015</xref>).</p>
					<p>Otras toxinas insecticidas menos estudiadas de <italic>Bt</italic> incluyen las proteínas insec- ticidas secretadas (Sip, por sus siglas en inglés), las cuales son proteínas de aproxi- madamente 41 kDa con actividad reportada contra coleópteros, y las β-exotoxinas. Estas, al igual que las proteínas Sip, son secretadas durante la fase vegetativa, no obstante, las β-exotoxinas son metabolitos secundarios secretadas sólo por ciertas cepas de <italic>Bt.</italic> Su efecto tóxico no se limita a invertebrados, llegando a ser toxicas con- tra mamíferos, por lo cual el uso de cepas de <italic>Bt</italic> capaces de sintetizar β-exotoxinas es restringido en diversas partes de América y Europa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Chattopadhyay y Banerjee, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Liu <italic>et al</italic>., 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Palma <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014</xref>).</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title><bold>
 <italic>Bacillus</italic> COMO BIOFUNGICIDAS</bold></title>
				<p>Los biofungicidas en general pueden definirse como microorganismos o com- puestos naturales que tienen la capacidad de controlar patógenos causantes de las enfermedades en las plantas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Abbey <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Existen múltiples reportes res- pecto al modo de acción de los diversos agentes biofungicidas:</p>
				<p><italic>Competencia</italic>, en que el agente biofungicida compite por factores nutricionales (como nitrógeno o carbono) con hongos, limitando el crecimiento de estos.</p>
				<p><italic>Antibiosis</italic>, en que existe interacciones biológicas antagónicas entre organismos.</p>
				<p><italic>Parasitismo</italic>, simbiosis en la cual uno de los organismos subsiste del otro causándole deterioro.</p>
				<p><italic>Inducción de resistencia</italic>, mecanismo en el cual se induce a la planta adoptar medi- das biológicas que evitan la propagación de patógenos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">García-Montelongo <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Köhl <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>).</p>
				<p>Los fungicidas formulados a base de cepas del género <italic>Bacillus</italic> ofrecen varias ventajas sobre otros microorganismos, ya que forman endosporas y pueden tole- rar condiciones extremas de pH, temperatura y osmóticas, pudiendo colonizar la superficie de la raíz, aumentan el crecimiento de las plantas y causan la lisis del micelio fúngico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">El-Bendary <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>).</p>
				<sec>
					<title><italic>Bacillus subtilis</italic></title>
					<p><italic>Bacillus subtilis</italic> ha sido una de las especies más estudiadas y utilizadas por su producción de sustancias con un alto potencial de control biológico, como lo son los compuestos orgánicos volátiles, así como metabolitos secundarios bioactivos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Andrić <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). Entre estas sustancias resaltan los lantibióticos, son péptidos de bajo peso molecular. Son antibióticos con un alto grado de actividad bactericida contra bacterias Gram positivas, siendo la subtilina el más estudiado en el caso de <italic>B. subtilis</italic>. Esta forma poros dependientes de voltaje en la membrana citoplásmica de bacterias susceptibles (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Klein y Entian, 1994</xref>). Otros lantibióticos sintetizados por <italic>B. subtilis</italic> incluyen la plantazolicina, con alta selectividad contra <italic>B. anthracis</italic> y la ericina (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Molohon <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Stein <italic>et al.,</italic> 2002</xref>). Existen diversos antibióticos sintetizados por <italic>B. subtilis,</italic> como lo son: bacitracina, la cual tiene actividad princi- palmente contra bacterias Gram positivas inhibiendo la síntesis de peptidoglicano; bacilisina, la cual cuenta con actividad contra bacterias y hongos, inhibe la síntesis de glucosamina, perturbando la formación de la pared celular microbiana; rizocticina, antibiótico con actividad principalmente contra hongos al inhibir la treonina sintasa, afectando la síntesis de proteínas en hongos susceptibles (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Borisova <italic>et al.,</italic> 2010</xref>; Molohon <italic>et al</italic>., 2016; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Rajavel <italic>et al</italic>., 2009</xref>; Stein <italic>et al</italic>., 2002).</p>
					<p>Entre el repertorio de proteínas de interés de <italic>B. subtilis</italic> también se encuentran las fengicidas e iturinas, las cuales tienen un efecto inhibitorio del crecimiento fúngico y actividad antagónica con la membrana celular de hongos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Caulier <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Otras sustancias sintetizadas por <italic>B. subtilis</italic> con actividad contra patógenos de plantas son los lipopéptidos, compuestos de bajo peso molecular con caracterís- ticas anfifílicas que proporciona protección a las plantas, al suprimir directamente el crecimiento de los agentes patógenos o induciendo resistencia sistémica en plan- tas hospederas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Hashem <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Cabe resaltar que las sustancias sintetizadas por <italic>B. subtilis</italic> no solo tienen actividad por sí mismas, también tienen la facultad de inducir una reacción inmune en plantas, volviéndolas menos susceptibles contra infecciones (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Andrić <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>).</p>
					<p>Las bacterias de la especie <italic>Bacillus subtilis</italic> son ampliamente estudiadas para el control biológico de microorganismos fitopatógenos, lo que facilita su uso racional; de esta manera, la Administración de Alimentos y Medicamentos de los Estados Unidos (USFDA) ha otorgado el estado “generalmente considerado como seguro” (GRAS, por sus siglas en inglés) a esta especie, siendo así, reconocido como no pa- tógeno (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Cawoy <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>). <italic>B. subtilis</italic> es una especie bacteriana ubicua en varios hábitats y cumple diversos nichos ecológicos. No tiene historial de patogenicidad por contacto en el ambiente, la cual ha mostrado ser un potencial agente de con- trol biológico de hongos fitopatógenos y bacterias, mosquitos y nemátodos dañinos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Mnif y Ghribi, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Ongena y Jacques, 2008</xref>). La supervivencia de <italic>B. subtilis</italic> en la rizósfera y, por lo tanto, su alta eficacia como biopesticida es debido a su diversi- dad metabólica (enzimas líticas y compuestos antimicrobianos) y su capacidad para producir esporas (Cawoy <italic>et al</italic>., 2011).</p>
					<p>En diversos estudios se ha reportado el potencial larvicida de metabolitos (li- popéptidos) derivados de <italic>B. subtilis</italic>, los cuales se han empleado en formulaciones efectivas para el control de <italic>Drosophila melanogaster</italic>, los dípteros <italic>Culex quinque- fasciatus</italic>, <italic>Anopheles stephensi</italic> y <italic>Aedes aegypti</italic>, así como los lepidópteros <italic>Prays oleae</italic>, <italic>Spodoptera littoralis</italic> y <italic>Ephestia kuehniella</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Mnif y Ghribi, 2015</xref>). Geetha y Manonmani (2008), reportaron que las etapas pupales de <italic>A. stephensi</italic>, <italic>C. quinque- fasciatus</italic> y <italic>A. aegypti</italic> [LC50: 2, 7.3 y 11.8 mg mL<sup>-1</sup>, respectivamente] resultaron ser más susceptibles al lipopéptido mosquitocida que etapas larvarias [LC50: 19, 23 y 34 mg mL<sup>-1</sup>, respectivamente]; un aspecto notable de estos compuestos insecticidas es el reporte de su estabilidad y que conservan su capacidad larvicida, pupicida y adulticida bajo condiciones como pH extremo, altas temperaturas, radiación solar/ UV, así como a la acción de proteasas (Geetha y Manonmani, 2010; Ghribi <italic>et al</italic>., 2012).</p>
					<p>Por otra parte, se han reportado otras especies del género <italic>Bacillus</italic> con capacidad de control biológico. Por ejemplo, <italic>Bacillus cereus</italic> es una bacteria formadora de esporas, ampliamente distribuida en el suelo y utilizada como ACB. <italic>B. cereus</italic> es un patógeno facultativo natural del mosquito <italic>A. aegypti</italic>, el principal vector de chikun- gunya y dengue, ya que pueden colonizar los intestinos de las larvas del insecto. La actividad insecticida de <italic>B. cereus</italic> contra larvas de <italic>A. aegypti</italic> fue aproximadamente de un 90%, siendo la concentración letal (LC50) de 2.5 ± 0.71 mg mL<sup>-1</sup> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Radhika <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>). Además, nuevas especies de este género y con capacidades metabó- licas interesantes podrían conducir a potenciales bioproductos antagonistas a fito- patógenos. <italic>B. cabrialesii</italic> es una nueva especie de <italic>Bacillus</italic>, caracterizada como endófita del cultivo de trigo, si bien ésta cepa ha mostrado biocontrol a <italic>Bipolaris sorokiniana</italic>, sus estrategias como promotora del crecimiento vegetal (solubilizado- ra de fósforo, productora de indoles, incremento de clorofila) podrían volver más interesante su aplicación, para disminuir la aplicación no sólo de pesticidas sinté- ticos, aunado a ello las dosis de fertilización (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">de los Santos-Villalobos <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">Valenzuela-Aragón <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">Villa-Rodríguez <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>).</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title><bold>USO COMERCIAL DE <italic>Bacillus</italic>
</bold></title>
				<p>Los plaguicidas microbianos ofrecen ventajas frente a otros grupos de plaguici- das, incluidos los derivados de hongos y plantas y zooides, debido a que en general los organismos utilizados en los insecticidas microbianos son esencialmente no tóxicos y no patógenos para la vida silvestre, los seres humanos y otros organis- mos no estrechamente relacionados con la plaga objetivo. Además, no dañan al medio ambiente y la calidad del agua y ofrecen una alternativa más eco-amigable que los plaguicidas químicos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Chandler <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Sarwar, 2015</xref>). Por otra parte, la mayoría de los insecticidas microbianos pueden usarse junto con insecticidas químicos sintéticos porque en la mayoría de los casos el producto microbiano no se desactiva o daña por efecto de los insecticidas convencionales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Mnif y Ghribi, 2015</xref>). Asimismo, pueden tener un efecto dual en los cultivos ya que la mayoría de los ACB poseen otros mecanismos, que mejoran la adquisición de nutrientes y/o el desarrollo de la planta, así como las propiedades del suelo, así como tam- bién muestran la capacidad de estimular la defensa y otros procesos fisiológicos de las plantas, que pueden hacer que los cultivos tratados sean más resistentes a una variedad de estrés bióticos y abióticos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Borriss, 2011</xref>; Sarwar, 2015). Además, los bioplaguicidas pueden usarse cuando las plagas hayan desarrollado resistencia a los pesticidas convencionales.</p>
				<p>Un organismo debe cumplir varios requisitos antes de ser liberado al ambiente como potencial bioplaguicida, entre ellos destaca que i) debe ser altamente especí- fico y efectivo contra la plaga objetivo, ii) demostrar el potencial para ser procesa- do con éxito mediante tecnología de producción continua, iii) estar disponible en formulaciones con una vida útil razonable, iv) mostrar estabilidad y ser inofensivo para el ser humano, la flora y fauna no objetivo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Menéndez y Paço, 2020</xref>). El género <italic>Bacillus</italic> ha sido utilizado como modelo de estudio para la agro-biotecnología por poseer distintas características (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 3</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f7">
						<label>Figura 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Características de interés de <italic>Bacillus</italic> spp. para la formulación de bioinoculantes.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-04-RMEXFIT202434-gf7.png"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Por ejemplo, <italic>Bacillus thuringiensis</italic> (<italic>Bt</italic>) se ha utilizado como bioplaguicida en la agricultura, la silvicultura y el control de vectores de enfermedades humanas. Sus ventajas son la toxicidad específica contra los insectos objetivo, la falta de resi- duos contaminantes y la seguridad para los organismos no objetivo, como mamífe- ros, aves, anfibios y reptiles (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Sansinenea, 2012</xref>). Actualmente, los productos a base de <italic>B. thuringiensis</italic> representan más del 70% de los bioplaguicidas comercializados mundialmente (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 4</xref>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">Valenzuela Ruiz <italic>et al</italic>., 2024</xref>). La mayoría de las formu- laciones de <italic>Bt</italic> se obtienen de diferentes cepas, incluyendo <italic>B. thuringiensis</italic> subsp. <italic>kurstaki</italic> (Btk) cepa HD1 (Cry1Aa, Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac y Cry2Aa); <italic>B. thuringiensis</italic> subsp. <italic>kurstaki</italic> (Btk) cepa HD73 (Cry1Ac); <italic>B. thuringiensis</italic> subsp. <italic>aizawai</italic> cepa HD137 (Cry1Aa, Cry1B, Cry1Ca, y Cry1Da); <italic>B. thuringiensi</italic>s subsp. <italic>tenebrionis</italic> (Cry3Aa) y <italic>B. thuringiensis</italic> subsp. <italic>israelensis</italic> (Cry4A, Cry4B, Cry11A y Cyt1A) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Mnif y Ghribi, 2015</xref>). En México, la aplicación de formulados a base de <italic>Bt</italic> repre- senta una alternativa eficaz para el control de insectos, presentando un porcentaje de uso de 4 a 10% del total de insecticidas utilizados para los cultivos de maíz, algodón y hortalizas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">Tamez Guerra <italic>et al</italic>., 2001</xref>). Además, otras especies del género de <italic>Bacillus</italic>, tales como: <italic>B</italic>. <italic>subtilis</italic>, <italic>B. cereus</italic> y <italic>B. licheniformis</italic>, también han demostrado su potencial insecticida control plagas de cultivos agrícolas y vectores de enfermedades humanas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">Villarreal-Delgado <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f8">
						<label>Figura 4</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Evolución del género <italic>Bacillus</italic> como bioplaguicida en la industria.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-42-04-RMEXFIT202434-gf8.png"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>En los últimos años, el mercado de la producción de plaguicidas químicos ha declinado un 2% anual, mientras que la producción de bioplaguicidas presenta un incremento anual del 20% (Cheng <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020). Entre las razones para el interés creciente en los bioplaguicidas, se encuentra la baja probabilidad de que los orga- nismos patógenos desarrollen resistencia, la disminución en el descubrimiento de nuevos insecticidas, una mayor conciencia pública sobre los riesgos de los pla- guicidas sintéticos, el incremento de estudios sobre la especificidad de los biopla- guicidas, avances en la producción y la tecnología de formulación y divulgación, así como una mejor interacción con los productores y las autoridades reguladoras (Olson <italic>et al.</italic>, 2013; Olson, 2015).</p>
				<p>Es importante destacar que la transición e integración de los bioplaguicidas en las prácticas agrícolas actuales deben cumplir con ciertos requisitos: a) efectividad contra la plaga o enfermedad, b) compatibilidad con otros métodos de control, c) bajo o nulo impacto ambiental, d) efecto duradero en el entorno, e) rentabilidad desde el punto de vista costo/beneficio, f) viabilidad técnica de su uso, y g) acepta- ción por parte de los productores y la sociedad en general. Por lo tanto, su uso pre- senta una oportunidad para impulsar el desarrollo y modernización de las prácticas agrícolas actuales, contribuyendo a la seguridad alimentaria mediante enfoques de bioseguridad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">Villarreal-Delgado <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>). </p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title><bold>Retos actuales y futuros del uso del género B<italic>acillus</italic> en la agricultura</bold></title>
				<p>Existen cuestiones claves para mejorar la eficacia de los bioplaguicidas y la consistencia de la protección, entre ellos destaca la correcta selección de cepas, ya que el método que más se utiliza actualmente es el cribado <italic>in vitro</italic>, debido a que es fácil de implementar. Este presenta el inconveniente de que generalmente no se toman en cuenta las condiciones ambientales de donde se utilizará, por lo cual es necesario optimizar el proceso de selección, utilizando métodos más realistas que incluyan la vinculación de observaciones en campo con parámetros comprobables (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Cawoy <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>).</p>
				<p>Otro aspecto que se debe considerar para mejorar la eficacia de los bioplaguici- das, es el agro-sistema, es decir, encontrar combinaciones adecuadas entre biopla- guicidas, plaguicidas químicos, fertilización de plantas, prácticas agrícolas como diferentes tipos de labranza, así como integrarlos en un MIPE que incluya prácticas de cultivo, resistencia de la planta, control químico y otros ACB (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Cawoy <italic>et al.,</italic> 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Pérez-García <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">Van Der Heijden <italic>et al.,</italic> 2008</xref>). Los métodos de formulación y aplicación también son aspectos claves a considerar que influyen directamente en la eficacia de los bioplaguicidas. Para ello es importante realizar investigaciones sobre sus aplicaciones en ambientes específicos, así como adicio- nar a las formulaciones compuestos u otros microorganismos que sean biocompa- tibles y optimicen la actividad de control biológico (Cawoy <italic>et al</italic>., 2011; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Correa <italic>et al</italic>., 2009</xref>). Asimismo, es necesario estudiar la tolerancia al calor, la desecación, la exposición a la radiación ultravioleta, así como otros tipos de estrés que pudiesen reducir la efectividad de los insecticidas microbianos, en consecuencia, se necesi- tan procedimientos especiales de formulación, aplicación y almacenamiento para algunos plaguicidas microbianos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Chandler <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>).</p>
				<p>Por lo tanto, podemos precisar que cada ACB es un organismo particular que efectúa su acción de forma específica, donde los estudios de cada cepa microbiana seleccionada se deben profundizar, con el objetivo de incrementar el conocimiento sobre la forma de potenciar su control biológico mediante una formulación efectiva, considerando aspectos de riesgo ecológico y la bioseguridad para el agro- sistema. Por ello también es necesario profundizar en la correcta identificación del ACB, para descartar el uso de cepas patogénicas para el ser humano. Particular- mente, dentro del grupo de <italic>Bacillus cereus</italic>, que incluye especies como <italic>B. cereus</italic>, <italic>B. thuringiensis</italic>, <italic>B. anthracis</italic>, <italic>B. mycoides</italic>, <italic>B. seudomycoides</italic>, <italic>B. cytotoxicus</italic> y <italic>B. weihenstephanensis</italic>, algunas cepas hansido identificadas como patógenos para humanos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">Villarreal-Delgado <italic>et al.,</italic> 2018</xref>). </p>
				<p>La virulencia de estas especies se ha asociado principalmente con la presencia de dos toxinas, la hemolisina BL (HBL) y la toxina entérica no hemolítica (NHE), que forman un complejo proteico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Kim <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>). Además, en cepas patógenas se han identificado otras toxinas, incluyendo la citotoxina K (<italic>cytK</italic>), enterotoxina FM (<italic>entFM</italic>), enterotoxina S (<italic>entS</italic>) y enterotoxina T (<italic>bceT</italic>). También están impli- cados en la patogenicidad de estas cepas productos de otros genes, como la hemo- lisina A (<italic>hlyA</italic>), hemolisina II y III (<italic>hlyI, hlyII</italic>), cereolisina A y B (<italic>cerA, cerB)</italic>, y el factor transcripción pleitrópico (<italic>pclR</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Ceuppens <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>).</p>
				<p>La clasificación y diferenciación de especies dentro del grupo de <italic>Bacillus ce- reus</italic> se ha realizado utilizando el gen 16S RNAr y otras características como i) virulencia (<italic>B. cereus</italic>), ii) contenido de plásmidos (<italic>B. anthracis</italic> y <italic>B. thuringiensis</italic>), iii) condiciones de crecimiento (<italic>B. cytotoxicus</italic> y <italic>B. weihenstephanensis</italic>) y iv) ca- racterísticas morfológicas (<italic>B. mycoides</italic> y <italic>B. seudomycoides</italic>). Sin embargo, la dife- renciación entre especies estrechamente relacionadas, como <italic>B. cereus</italic>, <italic>B. anthracis</italic> y <italic>B. thuringiensis</italic>, es limitada cuando se usan factores de virulencia y contenido de plásmidos debido a la pérdida y transferencia de estos elementos a lo largo de su historia evolutiva (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Hoffmaster <italic>et al</italic>., 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Liu <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>). Recientemente, es- tudios comparativos de genomas completos utilizando hibridación digital de ADN (dDDH) revelaron una amplia distribución de genes <italic>cry</italic> y plásmidos tipo pXO en miembros de este grupo. Estos estudios demostraron que hay una baja correlación entre la posición filogenética y la presencia o ausencia de estos plásmidos, además demostraron que el análisis multilocus (MLST) tiene una baja resolución para la diferenciación a nivel de especies (Liu <italic>et al</italic>., 2015).</p>
				<p>Para la selección y comercialización de ACB de estas especies es necesaria su correcta identificación y la determinación de su virulencia para el ser humano. La detección del riesgo potencial de estas especies se puede llevar a cabo mediante estudios de taxonomía, actividad β-hemolítica y detección con marcadores mole- culares de virulencia definidos, pero la única alternativa precisa de clasificar y de- terminar su virulencia es mediante el estudio de genómica comparativa utilizando genomas completos. Sin embargo, es importante considerar que son herramientas costosas, pero a medida que las secuencias de genomas completos se encuentren disponibles se podrán realizar estudios más profundos para garantizar el uso de cepas bioseguras en la agricultura.</p>
				<p>Por otra parte, debido a que el uso de bioplaguicidas ha adquirido gran rele- vancia en el sector agrícola, lo cual generalmente implica la aplicación de altas poblaciones del microorganismo de interés con el objetivo de potenciar su esta- blecimiento y colonización, en necesario que se realicen estudios sobre el impacto ecológico de la introducción de un ACB a los agro-sistemas. Esto debido a que bajo ciertas condiciones pudiesen ocasionar cambios en las comunidades microbianas con resultados agro-ecológicamente impredecibles, aún más cuando se inoculan ACB, ya que generalmente su actividad biológica no es específica o selectiva para el agente fitopatógeno en cuestión, lo cual puede generar cambios impredecibles en la estructura microbiana de dichos agro-sistemas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">Trabelsi y Mhamdi, 2013</xref>). De esta manera, es importante dar seguimiento al impacto de la inoculación de agentes de control biológico sobre la estructura y composición de las comunidades micro- bianas en los agro-sistemas, con el objetivo de garantizar el equilibrio ecológico, además del efecto insecticida buscado.</p>
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				<title>Agradecimientos</title>
				<p> </p>
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				<p>Los autores(as) agradecen al Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias (INIFAP) por el financiamiento al Proyecto de Investigación “Los microorganismos nativos del suelo como una estrategia para incrementar la tolerancia a estrés biótico y abiótico en cereales” (11175835959). También agradecen los fondos otorgados por el Instituto Tecnológico de Sonora (PROFAPI_2024_0001), así como a los integrantes del Laboratorio de Biotecnología del Recurso Microbiano (www.itson.mx/LBRM).</p>
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