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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">rmfi</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Revista mexicana de fitopatología</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Rev. mex. fitopatol</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">0185-3309</issn>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2007-8080</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedad Mexicana de Fitopatología A.C.</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.18781/R.MEX.FIT.2308-2</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="other">00008</article-id> 
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artículos de revisión</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Aspectos moleculares de la biosíntesis de la faseolotoxina producida por <italic>Pseudomonas syringae</italic> pv. <italic>Phaseolicola</italic></article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Chacón-López</surname>
						<given-names>Alejandra</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Hernández-Flores</surname>
						<given-names>José Luis</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Montalvo-González</surname>
						<given-names>Efigenia</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Aguilera-Aguirre</surname>
						<given-names>Selene</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Laboratorio Integral de Investigación en Alimentos/Laboratorio de Microbiología, Departamento de Química y Bioquímica, Instituto Tecnológico de Tepic, Avenida Tecnológico No. 2595, Col. Lagos del Country, Tepic, Nayarit, CP 63175, México. </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Instituto Tecnológico de Tepic</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Tecnológico de Tepic</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<postal-code>63175</postal-code>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Departamento de Ingeniería Genética, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados Unidad Irapuato, km 9.6 Libramiento Norte Carr. Irapuato-León, Irapuato, Gto., CP 36821, México.</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<postal-code>36821</postal-code>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>18</day>
				<month>03</month>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<season>Jan-Apr</season>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>43</volume>
			<issue>1</issue>
			<elocation-id>RMEXFIT23082</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>29</day>
					<month>08</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>10</day>
					<month>12</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
					<license-p>Este es un artículo publicado en acceso abierto bajo una licencia Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>RESUMEN</title>
				<p> </p>
				<sec>
					<title>Antecedentes/Objetivo</title>
					<p>. La faseolotoxina es producida por uno de los fitopatóge- nos más importantes y estudiados en el área agrícola: <italic>Pseudomonas syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic>. Esta bacteria causa el tizón de halo, una enfermedad que devasta al cultivo del frijol. El éxito de <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> está relacionado con su información genética que le permite sintetizar metabolitos deletéreos para su hos- pedero, como la faseolotoxina. El objetivo de la presente investigación fue analizar la base molecular del mecanismo de acción, la inmunidad, la genética involucrada en la biosíntesis de la faseolotoxina, las estrategias de diagnóstico molecular y las técnicas moleculares desarrolladas en México, para llevar a cabo el manejo del tizón de halo del frijol.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Materiales y Métodos. </title>
					<p>Se realizó la búsqueda y el análisis de la información cien- tífica más relevante respecto a la biosíntesis de faseolotoxina y los estudios molecu- lares de los factores de patogenicidad y virulencia de <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> que han contribuido al desarrollo de estrategias moleculares enfocadas en el diag- nóstico y manejo del tizón de halo en frijol.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Resultados. </title>
					<p><italic>P. syringae</italic> pv<italic>. phaseolicola</italic> produce faseolotoxina, que es la respon- sable de la formación del halo clorótico característico del tizón de halo, esta toxina es un inhibidor de la OCTasa, una enzima que participa en la ruta de síntesis de arginina en frijol. Las regiones cromosómicas Pht y Pbo contienen genes involu- crados en la síntesis e inmunidad de la faseolotoxina, y la expresión de estos genes está regulada por el sistema GacS/GacA y la temperatura. La identificación de genes involucrados en la síntesis de factores de patogenicidad y virulencia, como la faseolotoxina, ha permitido el desarrollo de estrategias de diagnóstico y manejo de la enfermedad basadas en la amplificación de ADN y el uso de marcadores mole- culares que facilitan la identificación de cultivares de frijol resistentes al patógeno.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Conclusión. </title>
					<p>Los estudios moleculares han contribuido al entendimiento de cómo el patovar <italic>phaseolicola</italic> produce faseolotoxina. Esta información ha sido esencial para entender cómo las bacterias han evolucionado de variantes no patogénicas a patogénicas; además, proporcionan información que permite desarrollar nuevas estrategias para un diagnóstico oportuno y contribuyen en las estrategias para el manejo del tizón de halo.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Palabras clave: </title>
					<p>Patogenicidad, Virulencia, Fitotoxinas, Transferencia Horizontal, Regulación genética.</p>
				</sec>
			</abstract>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="10"/>
				<table-count count="6"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="66"/>
				<page-count count="0"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introducción</title>
			<p>El frijol común (<italic>Phaseolus vulgaris</italic>) es un cultivo alimenticio y comercial de suma importancia a nivel mundial. Este cultivo se encuentra ampliamente adaptado a ambientes con temperaturas de crecimiento moderadas y su popularidad se origina porque es fácil de producir (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Foyer <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>). Actualmente, la calidad, rendimiento y producción de este cultivo se ve afectado por numerosos problemas fitosanitarios, algunos generados por diversos microorganismos, que limitan la calidad de los productos agrícolas y son responsables de cuantiosas pérdidas económicas; además, representan una amenaza significativa para la seguridad alimentaria mundial (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">Sundin <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>). Dentro de estos microorganismos se encuentra <italic>Pseudomonas syringae</italic>, uno de los fitopatógenos más importantes para este y otros cultivos como jitomate, kiwi, tabaco, limón, avena, trigo, soya, pepino, arroz, entre otros (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Chen <italic>et al.</italic>, 2022</xref>). La especie <italic>syringae</italic> incluye 62 patovares, dependiendo del hospedero al que infectan y entre ellos se encuentran la mayoría de los fitopatógenos del género <italic>Pseudomonas</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Bull <italic>et al.</italic>, 2010</xref>)<italic>.</italic> El éxito de un fitopatógeno para infectar, colonizar e inducir una serie de síntomas en su hospedero, está directamente relacionado con su información genética. Esta información, representada por los genes, le permite sintetizar y secretar metabolitos deletéreos para la planta (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Lamichhane <italic>et al.</italic>, 2015</xref>). Los diversos patovares de <italic>P. syringae</italic> son reconocidos por producir un amplio espectro de metabolitos que actúan como factores de patogenicidad y virulencia; entre ellos se encuentran las fitotoxinas, que dañan directamente las células de las plantas e influyen en el desarrollo de la enfermedad. <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic>, es el agente causal de la enfermedad del</p>
			<p>tizón de halo del frijol, la cual puede ser devastadora, especialmente cuando persisten las condiciones ambientales adversas. La presencia de un halo clorótico que caracteriza a esta enfermedad es justamente ocasionada por la faseolotoxina, una fitotoxina producida por <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Arrebola <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>). La genética relacionada con la síntesis de las fitotoxinas ha cobrado notable importancia, ya que los genes que codifican para las enzimas involucradas en el ensamblaje, la maduración e incluso, las necesarias para la secreción, se encuentran agrupados en fragmentos cromosómicos conocidos como islas genómicas. Estas islas contienen todos los elementos necesarios para transferirse de manera horizontal entre los diferentes patovares. Esto es de gran relevancia, dado que a través de estos mecanismos de transferencia genética, las bacterias adquieren nuevas habilidades patogénicas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Melnyk <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>). El avance en el estudio genético de los factores de patogenicidad y virulencia, como son las fitotoxinas, favorece la comprensión de cómo los patógenos adquieren y producen el arsenal molecular necesario para el desarrollo de las enfermedades en los sistemas vegetales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Ichinose <italic>et al.</italic>, 2013</xref>). Considerando que cada patovar de <italic>P. syringae</italic> produce una diversidad de fitotoxinas, esta revisión se enfocará en el análisis uno de esos casos: la genética involucrada en biosíntesis de la faseolotoxina producida por el patovar <italic>phaseolicola</italic> y su participación en el desarrollo del tizón de halo del frijol. Esta información contribuye esencialmente al entendimiento de cómo esta bacteria fitopatógena ha adquirido genes necesarios para sintetizar la faseolotoxina y cómo ha coordinado su sistema de regulación endógeno para este propósito. Adicionalmente, se analiza el potencial que han tenido este tipo de estudios genéticos para el desarrollo de es-</p>
			<p>trategias destinadas al diagnóstico y manejo oportuno de las enfermedades.</p>
			<sec>
				<title><italic>P. syringae pv. phaseolicola</italic></title>
				<p>El tizón de halo es una de las principales enfermedades que afecta al cultivo de frijol y es causada por la bacteria <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic>. Esta bacteria persiste en la semilla y se activa después de su germinación; puede sobrevivir como parásito dentro del tejido vegetal y como epífita sobre la superficie de las hojas. La bacteria se ha observado en la mayoría de las regiones productoras de frijol en todo el mundo y se ha convertido en un fitopatógeno altamente destructivo para este cultivo, generando pérdidas que oscilan entre el 50 y 100 % de la producción (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Arnold <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>; Lépiz-Ildefonso <italic>et al.</italic>, 2015). La bacteria se puede presentar en los diferentes estados fenológicos afectando hojas, tallo, vainas y semillas. En hojas, se observa la aparición pequeñas lesiones acuosas que posteriormente se vuelven necróticas; aproximadamente una semana después de la infección, una o más lesiones son rodeadas por un halo clorótico (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>A y B). También en las vainas se desarrollan lesiones acuosas y hundidas de color marrón rojizo (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>
				</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f1">
						<label>Figura 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Síntomas producidos por <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> en el frijol. A y B, Síntomas en las hojas. C y D, Síntomas en las vainas. Fuente: Adaptada de Schwartz, 2008; Harveson, 2009.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT23082-gf1.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>C y D). Las infecciones de las vainas pueden transferirse a las semillas, causando que se contraigan, decoloren o sean más pequeñas de lo normal. La bacteria se desarrolla en un rango de 28-30 °C con una humedad relativa mayor al 80 %; sin embargo, a temperaturas que oscilan entre los 18 y 20 ºC se presentan síntomas más severos. El descenso de la temperatura induce la producción de faseolotoxina, que es la responsable de la formación del halo clorótico y del amarillamiento característico que se observa durante el desarrollo de la enfermedad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Arnold <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">Xin <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018</xref>).</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title><italic>La faseolotoxina y su mecanismo de acción</italic></title>
				<p>Desde el punto de vista químico, la estructura de la faseolotoxina es inusual y tiene dos componentes distintos: un residuo inorgánico, N<sup>δ</sup>(N’-Sulfodiaminofosfinil) y un tripéptido, L-ornitil-alanil-homoarginina (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Arrebola <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>). Esta toxina actúa como un inhibidor reversible de la enzima ornitina carbamoiltransferasa (OCTasa EC 2.1.3.3.), codificada por el gen <italic>argF</italic>. La OCTasa cataliza la conversión de ornitina y carbamoilfosfato a citrulina en la ruta de la síntesis</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f2">
						<label>Figura 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Estructura de la faseolotoxina y PSOrn, producto de la degradación de la faseolotoxina por peptidasas de la planta.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT23082-gf2.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>de arginina. Dentro de la célula vegetal, la faseolotoxina se hidroliza por la acción de peptidasas para producir N<sup>δ</sup>-(N´-sulfodiaminofosfinil)-L-ornitina (denominada octicidina o PSOrn), que es un inhibidor irreversible de la OCTasa y que es la forma predominante en la que se encuentra la toxina en plantas de frijol infectadas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Sawada <italic>et al.</italic>, 2002</xref>). Esta inhibición provoca una acumulación de ornitina y una deficiencia de arginina. A medida que la toxina se difunde a través del tejido foliar, altera la síntesis de la clorofila, causando clorosis e inhibición del crecimiento en tejidos vegetales y finalmente, ocasiona la muerte de las células del huésped. Adicionalmente, la invasión sistémica de la planta se ve facilitada por el efecto de la faseolotoxina, de manera que contribuye significativamente a la virulencia del patógeno (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Arnold <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>).</p>
				<p>Originalmente, la faseolotoxina se consideró restringida a <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic>; sin embargo, también es producida por el patovar <italic>actinidiae</italic> que infecta al kiwi (<italic>Actinidia chinensis</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Fujikawa y Sawada, 2019</xref>), y por una cepa del patovar <italic>syringae</italic>, aislada de <italic>Vicia sativa</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Tourte y Manceau, 1995</xref>). Diversos aislamientos pertenecientes al patovar <italic>phaseolicola</italic> sintetizan faseolotoxina cuando se cultivan a 18-20 °C, aunque su grado de producción puede variar entre aislamientos. Por otro lado, también se han identificado cepas pertenecientes al patovar <italic>phaseolicola</italic> que son incapaces de producirla, ya que carecen de todos o parte de los genes necesarios para su síntesis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Gonzalez <italic>et al.</italic>, 2003</xref>).</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title><italic>Inmunidad a la faseolotoxina</italic></title>
				<p>Inicialmente, fue un misterio determinar cómo <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> era inmune a su propia toxina. El efecto tóxico de la faseolotoxina era evidente ya que no solo inhibe a la OCTasa del frijol, sino a una gran variedad de OCTasas vegetales y bacterianas e incluso de mamíferos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Bender <italic>et al.</italic>, 1999</xref>). En estos organismos</p>
				<p>causa un fenotipo de auxotrofía a arginina, que es aliviado añadiendo arginina o citrulina al medio de cultivo. En contraste, cepas de <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> productoras de faseolotoxina, son insensibles a su toxina y no requieren de suplementos de arginina o citrulina. Todo se esclareció cuando se identificó y caracterizó el gen <italic>argK</italic>, que codifica para una OCTasa resistente a la faseolotoxina (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Mosqueda <italic>et al.</italic>, 1990</xref>). De esta manera, se observó que <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> presenta dos actividades de OCTasa, una sensible a la toxina que se produce a 28 °C y, la actividad de la OCTasa resistente, que garantiza el suministro óptimo de la arginina requerida para el crecimiento bacteriano, bajo las condiciones de síntesis de faseolotoxina (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Lopez-Lopez <italic>et al.</italic>, 2004</xref>). El conocimiento acerca de la resistencia bacteriana al efecto de sus toxinas se ha utilizado en varias estrategias para desarrollar plantas resistentes. Para el caso de la faseolotoxina, <italic>argK</italic> ha sido utilizado como transgen en plantas de tabaco (<italic>Nicotiana tabacum</italic>) y ha tenido éxito en el desarrollo de plantas resistentes al efecto de la faseolotoxina (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">De la Fuente-Martinez <italic>et al.</italic>, 1992</xref>). Estudios como estos pueden extrapolarse a otros cultivos de interés agronómico, permitiendo generar cultivares resistentes al ataque de los patógenos.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title><italic>La genética detrás de la biosíntesis de faseolotoxina</italic></title>
				<p>Diversos estudios se han enfocado en la química de la faseolotoxina, el modo de acción y su contribución a la patogenicidad, pero se sabe poco sobre su biosíntesis. A través de los análisis genéticos, se ha aportado información relevante para dilucidar cómo se sintetiza esta toxina. El primer indicio de los genes involucrados en la síntesis fue la identificación y caracterización de <italic>amtA</italic> y <italic>desI</italic>, estos genes codifican para una amidinotransferasa y una desaturasa de ácidos grasos, respectivamente (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Hernandez-Guzman y Alvarez-Morales, 2001</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">Zhang y Patil, 1997</xref>). Actualmente, se cuenta con la descripción y el análisis de una región de 30,245 pb del cromosoma de <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> NPS3121, denominada Región Pht (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>A), la cual contiene 23 genes necesarios para la síntesis de faseolotoxina, incluyendo los genes <italic>argK</italic>, <italic>amtA</italic> y <italic>desI</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Aguilera <italic>et al.</italic>, 2007</xref>). La Región Pht está delimitada por secuencias de inserción y transposasas, sugiriendo que este fragmento constituye una isla genómica que pudo ser adquirida a través de eventos de transferencia horizontal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Murillo <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>). La función precisa de los genes codificados dentro de la región Pht permanece incierta y solamente algunos de estos genes han sido estudiados más a fondo (Aguilera <italic>et al.</italic>, 2012; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Arai y Kino, 2008</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Chen <italic>et al.</italic>, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Gonzalez-Villanueva <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014</xref>). De esta manera, ha sido posible asignarles una función en el proceso de síntesis y regulación de la faseolotoxina (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Cuadro 1</xref>).</p>
				<p>La faseolotoxina se compone de un tripéptido y se ha propuesto que su síntesis es</p>
				<p>a través de un mecanismo denominado síntesis no ribosómica de péptidos. En este proceso participan complejos enzimáticos como las péptido sintetasas no ribosomales (NRPS; por sus siglas en inglés, <italic>Non-ribosomal Peptide Synthetases</italic>) y/o las</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f3">
						<label>Figura 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Representación gráfica de las Regiones Pht y Pbo en el cromosoma de <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola.</italic> A, Operones de la Región Pht. B, Operones de la Región Pbo. Cada flecha representa cada gen, la dirección de la flecha indica la dirección de la transcripción.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT23082-gf3.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t1">
						<label>Cuadro 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Función de genes <italic>pht</italic> involucrados en la síntesis de faseolotoxina.</title>
						</caption>
						<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Gen</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Proteína codificada</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Función</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Referencia</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style: italic;">argK</td>
									<td>Ornitina carbamoil transferasa </td>
									<td>Catalizar la reacción entre el carbamoil fosfato y la ornitina para formar citrulina bajo condiciones de síntesis de faseolotoxina. </td>
									<td>Lopez-Lopez et al., 2004 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style: italic;">amtA</td>
									<td>Amidinotransferasa </td>
									<td>Catalizar la reacción de transferencia reversible de grupos amidino para sintetizar L-homoarginina. </td>
									<td>Hernandez-Guzman y Alvarez-Morales, 2001 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style: italic;">desI</td>
									<td>Desaturasa de ácidos grasos </td>
									<td>Deshidrogenar ácidos grasos, creando dobles enlaces entre carbono-carbono; percepción de la temperatura. </td>
									<td>Zhang y Patil, 1997 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style: italic;">phtU</td>
									<td>L-aminoácido ligasa </td>
									<td>Catalizar la condensación de aminoácidos. </td>
									<td>Arai y Kino, 2008 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style: italic;">phtQ</td>
									<td>Péptido ligasa </td>
									<td>Catalizar la formación de enlaces peptídicos. </td>
									<td>Chen et al., 2015 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style: italic;">phtL</td>
									<td>Piruvatofosfato dicinasa </td>
									<td>Transferir grupos fosfato del pirofosfato y del fosfoenolpiruvato a una molécula de AMP para sintetizar ATP, fosfato y piruvato. </td>
									<td>Gonzalez-Villanueva et al., 2014 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style: italic;">phtA</td>
									<td>Nucleósido trifosfato hidrolasa </td>
									<td>Hidrolizar el enlace beta-gamma fosfato de un nucleósido trifosfato. </td>
									<td>Aguilera et al., 2012 </td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>policétido sintetasas (PKS, por sus siglas en inglés, <italic>Polyketide Synthases</italic>). El gen PSPPH_4550, identificado como una NRPS, participa en la síntesis de faseolotoxina (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">De la Torre-Zavala <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>). De manera interesante, el gen PSPPH_4550 se encuentra codificado fuera de la Región Pht y es parte de otra isla genómica,</p>
				<p>denominada Región Pbo. Este fragmento contiene 16 genes (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>B) y algunos de ellos, codifican para NRPS o PKS (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Cuadro 2</xref>), sugiriendo su participación en la síntesis del tripéptido (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Guardado-Valdivia <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t2">
						<label>Cuadro 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Predicción de la función de genes <italic>pbo</italic> involucrados en la síntesis de faseolotoxina.</title>
						</caption>
						<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Gen</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Proteína codificada</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Función</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Referencia</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style: italic;">pboO</td>
									<td>Sintetasa c </td>
									<td>Formar enlaces amida en el proceso de síntesis de péptidos no ribosomales. </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">Guardado-Valdivia et al., 2021 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style: italic;">pboM</td>
									<td>Cetoacil transferasa </td>
									<td>Catalizar las elongaciones de ácidos grasos en la síntesis de policétidos. </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">Guardado-Valdivia et al., 2021 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style: italic;">pboA</td>
									<td>Enzima de unión a AMP </td>
									<td>Condensar y adenilar en el proceso de síntesis de péptidos no ribosomales. </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">De la Torre-Zavala et al., 2011 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style: italic;">pboB</td>
									<td>Cetoacil sintasa </td>
									<td>Catalizar la condensación de Claisen descarboxiladora de ácidos grasos en la síntesis de policétidos. </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">Guardado-Valdivia et al., 2021 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style: italic;">pboC</td>
									<td>Dominio de unión de fosfopanteína </td>
									<td>Unir aminoácidos y ácidos grasos activados en la síntesis de péptidos no ribosomales. </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">Guardado-Valdivia et al., 2021 </td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>A la fecha, múltiples genes involucrados en la síntesis de faseolotoxina han sido identificados (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Cuadro 1</xref> y 2), y se han asignado funciones a algunos de ellos; sin embargo, aún queda mucho trabajo para dilucidar la función del resto de los genes y especialmente, cuáles son los genes involucrados en sintetizar el componente inorgánico de dicha toxina.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title><italic>Regulación de la síntesis de faseolotoxina</italic></title>
				<p>Es evidente que los fitopatógenos requieren de mecanismos genéticos que les concedan la habilidad de adaptarse en respuesta a las condiciones en las que se encuentran. En bacterias fitopatógenas, los sistemas de regulación de dos componentes permiten la adaptación a diferentes condiciones en respuesta a las señales ambientales, transfiriendo la señal a factores de transcripción, los cuales activan la expresión de genes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Sultan <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>). <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> posee diversos sistemas de dos componentes; sin embargo, el sistema GacS/GacA es de gran importancia por su papel en el control de determinantes de virulencia y patogenicidad, adecuación ecológica, sistemas de <italic>Quorum sensing</italic> (<italic>Qs</italic>), y la síntesis de diversos metabolitos secundarios (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Latour, 2020</xref>). El sistema GacS/GacA, controla a todos los genes conocidos hasta ahora, involucrados en la síntesis y regulación de la faseolotoxina en <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> NPS3121 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">De la Torre-Zavala <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Ramirez-Zapata <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>). Otros reguladores globales, como el factor transcripcional IHF, también participa en este proceso. La función de IHF como</p>
				<p>regulador de la expresión de factores virulencia ha sido extensamente reportado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Arvizu-Gomez <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Reverchon <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>). Estos hallazgos revelan que algunos genes que se adquieren a través de eventos de transferencia horizontal, pueden ser integrados a los sistemas de regulación global preexistentes (RedondoSalvo <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020). En este sentido, los genes involucrados en la biosíntesis de la faseolotoxina no fueron la excepción.</p>
				<p>Para <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> NPS3121, el descenso de la temperatura también es un factor determinante en la producción de la faseolotoxina. Este cambio controla la transcripción de los genes <italic>pht</italic> y <italic>pbo</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Aguilera <italic>et al.</italic>, 2007</xref>; GuardadoValdivia <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021). La información recopilada hasta el momento, permite proponer un modelo de señalización y regulación de la biosíntesis de la faseolotoxina en <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> NPS3121 (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 4</xref>), en el cual se representa de manera esquemática el estímulo y la cascada de señalización responsable de desencadenar la síntesis de faseolotoxina.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f4">
						<label>Figura 4</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Modelo de señalización, regulación y efecto de la biosíntesis de la faseolotoxina producida por <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> NPS3121. La temperatura se percibe por el sensor membranal GacS, que como consecuencia se autofosforila (1). GacS fosforilado transfiere el fosfato al regulador de respuesta GacA (2). GacA controla la expresión de los genes <italic>pht</italic>, mediada por el regulador IHF. GacA también controla la transcripción de los genes <italic>pbo</italic> 3). Finalmente, se sintetiza la faseolotoxina, que inhibe a la OCTasa del frijol, impidiendo la síntesis de arginina. Consecuentemente, se desarrolla el halo clorótico.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT23082-gf4.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title><italic>Transferencia de las Regiones Pht y Pbo entre patovares</italic></title>
				<p>En bacterias, la transferencia horizontal de genes a través de elementos genéticos accesorios como plásmidos, transposones, profagos o islas genómicas les permite adquirir y expresar genes provenientes de una amplia gama de especies (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Carraro <italic>et al.</italic>, 2017</xref>). Se ha sugerido que Región Pht constituye una isla genómica que <italic>P. syringae</italic> adquirió mediante mecanismos de transferencia horizontal. Esto se ha sustentado dada la similitud de la organización y la secuencia de las diferentes versiones de la Región Pht identificadas en los patovares <italic>phaseolicola</italic> y <italic>actinidae</italic>, que denotan claramente un origen común y una funcionalidad conservada (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Murillo <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>). Adicionalmente, el hallazgo de cepas de <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> carentes de la Región Pht, ha dado sustento a esta propuesta (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Gonzalez <italic>et al.</italic>, 2003</xref>). En lo referente a la Región Pbo, también comprende otra isla genómica. A pesar de que ambas islas participan en la síntesis de la faseolotoxina, no existe una correlación entre la posesión de la Región Pbo y la Región Pht, sugiriendo que su adquisición se llevó a cabo de manera independiente y una vez que fueron adquiridas, se incorporaron en el cromosoma de <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic>, quedando bajo control de los sistemas de regulación global preexistentes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">De la Torre-Zavala <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Guardado-Valdivia <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>). Las bacterias patogénicas han evolucionado a partir de organismos relacionados no patogénicos, debido a la adquisición de material genético que codifica para múltiples factores de patogenicidad y virulencia. En lo que se refiere a los patovares de <italic>P. syringae</italic>, es importante comprender cómo los mecanismos de movilidad genética han contribuido a su patogenicidad y virulencia, porque finalmente, esto es lo que ha convertido a esta especie, en una de las 10 bacterias fitopatógenas más importantes a nivel mundial (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Mansfield <italic>et al.</italic>, 2012</xref>). En lo que se refiere al patovar <italic>phaseolicola</italic>, los estudios sobre la genética molecular de su interacción con el frijol y la evolución de su patogenicidad y virulencia, han contribuido con importantes descubrimientos en el campo de las interacciones planta-microorganismo, por lo que actualmente <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> es considerada un modelo de estudio de la interacción molecular planta-patógeno (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Arnold <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>).</p>
				<p><bold>Estrategias de detección molecular de <italic>Pseudomonas syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic>
</bold></p>
				<p>Uno de los requerimientos más importantes para manejar las enfermedades en las plantas es la identificación oportuna del agente causal. Actualmente, existen técnicas biotecnológicas que aceleran la obtención de resultados y han permitido la identificación oportuna de bacterias fitopatógenas. Adicionalmente, han complementado los procesos tradicionales de diagnóstico como la examinación visual, cultivo del patógeno, la microscopía y las pruebas de patogenicidad.</p>
				<p>En lo que se refiere a la detección e identificación de <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic>, se han desarrollado diversas estrategias moleculares, con la finalidad de llevar a cabo una detección precisa y oportuna. Dentro de las primeras estrategias reportadas, se encuentran los ensayos de inmunoadsorción ligado a enzima (ELISA, por sus siglas en inglés, <italic>Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay</italic>). Los antisueros obtenidos reconocieron de manera específica al patovar <italic>phaseolicola</italic>, sin mostrar reacción cruzada con otros patovares de <italic>P. syringae</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">Wyatt <italic>et al.</italic>, 1989</xref>). En esa misma época, se desarrolló una estrategia basada en la hibridación de sondas de ADN que portaban genes involucrados en la síntesis de la faseolotoxina. Esta técnica permitió la detección e identificación del patovar <italic>phaseolicola</italic> a partir de semillas y de muestras maceradas de tejidos con lesiones (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Schaad <italic>et al.</italic>, 1989</xref>).</p>
				<p>Con el desarrollo de la reacción en cadena de la polimerasa (PCR, por sus siglas en inglés, <italic>Polymerase Chain Reaction</italic>), se implementaron estrategias para detectar e identificar múltiples fitopatógenos y <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> no fue la excepción. Para esto, se diseñaron oligonucleótidos específicos a partir de las secuencias disponibles de genes involucrados en la biosíntesis de faseolotoxina (MosquedaCano y Herrera-Estrella, 1997; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Schaad <italic>et al.</italic>, 1995</xref>; Schaad <italic>et al.</italic>, 2007). En el <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Cuadro 3</xref> se describen algunos de los oligonucleótidos empleados para la identificación y las regiones que amplifican.</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t3">
						<label>Cuadro 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Oligonucleótidos usados para identificar cepas de <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> productoras de faseolotoxina.</title>
						</caption>
						<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Nombre</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Secuencia</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Blanco</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Referencia</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td>BRL519 BRL520 </td>
									<td>TTCATTCAAACCTCGCCCGTGTG TGAAAGGAGCCGCCGAAACTATTG </td>
									<td style="font-style: italic;">amtA</td>
									<td>Aguilera et al., 2007 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>PA5.1 PA3.1 </td>
									<td>AGCTTCTCCTCAAAACACCTGC TGTTCGCCAGAGGCAGTCATG </td>
									<td style="font-style: italic;">desI</td>
									<td>Schaad et al., 1995 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>62a 63a </td>
									<td>CAATGAAGATTACAAGCCTG GCTAGCTATCAGGGGACGAC </td>
									<td style="font-style: italic;">argK</td>
									<td>Mosqueda-Cano y Herrera-Estrella, 1997 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>P3004L P3004R </td>
									<td>CTGTCTGGCAGCCACTACAAAG GGCTGCAAATTGTGGGATTT </td>
									<td>Región Tox- </td>
									<td>Rico et al., 2006 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>AVR1-F AVR1-R </td>
									<td>CCGCCGTAGCAGGGCTTCAC GGACCAATCTCTTTTCTCAA </td>
									<td style="font-style: italic;">phtL</td>
									<td>Gonzalez et al., 2003 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>PHTE-F PHTE-R </td>
									<td>AATATAGGCTTCAACTTCCTC CCAGGTCAACTCACTTCCG </td>
									<td style="font-style: italic;">phtE</td>
									<td>Gonzalez et al., 2003 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>P25156 Ptx1I5c </td>
									<td>GCAAAAACGAAAACACCAGGCT ATCGCGCTGATCCGGAAAGG </td>
									<td style="font-style: italic;">phtA</td>
									<td>Aguilera et al., 2017 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>P12556 P11311 </td>
									<td>TCCGGTTATCGCTTCAGGTCG GCAGTTTCTGATCTTGGGCCC </td>
									<td style="font-style: italic;">phtM-N</td>
									<td>Aguilera et al., 2017 </td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>Es importante considerar la existencia de aislados de <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> que no producen faseolotoxina y por lo tanto, no se pueden detectar utilizando estos oligonucleótidos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Rico <italic>et al.</italic>, 2006</xref>). Además, la producción de faseolotoxina no es una característica específica de patovar <italic>phaseolicola</italic>, por lo que estos ensayos también podrían detectar otros patovares (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Tamura <italic>et al.</italic>, 2002</xref>). De acuerdo con esto, se han diseñado nuevas metodologías; por ejemplo, la PCR en tiempo real TaqMan, en la que se emplearon oligonucleótidos específicos, basados en el gen de la recombinasa específica de sitio. A través de esta estrategia se lograron diferenciar entre cepas de <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> productoras y no productoras de faseolotoxina (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Cho <italic>et al.</italic>, 2010</xref>). Otra técnica de amplificación de ADN, conocida como amplificación isotérmica mediada por bucle (LAMP; por sus siglas en inglés, <italic>Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification</italic>), ha sido adaptada para facilitar la caracterización e identificación rápida y específica del patovar <italic>phaseolicola</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Li <italic>et al.</italic>, 2009</xref>). El diagnóstico molecular de <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> es fundamental para el manejo eficaz del tizón de halo en cultivos de frijol. Aunque el diagnóstico molecular puede ser más costoso y requiere de infraestructura especializada, su alta precisión, rapidez y capacidad para detectar infecciones de manera temprana y cuantitativa, hacen que sea una herramienta indispensable en la lucha contra este patógeno. Con el tiempo, se espera que las tecnologías de diagnóstico molecular continúen mejorando y se hagan más accesibles, lo que permitirá un manejo más eficiente de las enfermedades bacterianas en la agricultura.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title><italic>Estrategias moleculares para el manejo del tizón de halo del frijol. Una alternativa para la agricultura en México</italic></title>
				<p>En México, el manejo del tizón de halo en frijol se ha convertido en un desafío para los productores debido a la naturaleza agresiva de la enfermedad y la capacidad de propagación rápida (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Félix-Gastélum <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>). <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> se encuentra ampliamente distribuida en el país (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figura 5</xref>), por lo es un riesgo para la producción nacional de frijol (Félix-Gastélum <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Jiménez-Hernández <italic>et al.</italic>, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Navarrete y Acosta-Gallegos, 2000</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Quiñones-Aguilar <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018</xref>). Es por esto que para el manejo del tizón de halo, se han desarrollado estrategias como la aplicación de antibióticos agrícolas, la eliminación de residuos de la cosecha, la rotación de cultivos o el empleo de variedades de frijol resistentes; entre otras (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Schwartz <italic>et al.</italic>, 2005</xref>). Con la combinación de estas medidas ha sido posible controlar el desarrollo de la enfermedad; sin embargo, no ha sido suficiente.</p>
				<p>A partir de los avances en la Biotecnología, las estrategias moleculares han emergido como una herramienta poderosa que pueden complementar las estrategias convencionales y lograr un manejo más eficiente y sostenible de los patógenos. La resistencia genética es una de las estrategias más efectivas para controlar las</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f5">
						<label>Figura 5</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Mapa representativo de la distribución de <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> en México. Los estados marcados con color amarillo indican la presencia de esta bacteria.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT23082-gf5.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>enfermedades en las plantas. En México, el uso de marcadores moleculares ha favorecido la identificación de variedades de frijol, como Flor de Mayo M38, San Rafael, Pinto Laguna 80 y Pinto Saltillo, que muestran resistencia contra <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Jiménez-Hernández <italic>et al.</italic>, 2023</xref>). A pesar de esto, la resistencia en las variedades comerciales disponibles en México sigue siendo limitada, por lo que el desarrollo de nuevas variedades resistentes, mediante técnicas moleculares novedosas como la edición genética CRISPR/Cas9 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">Thomas <italic>et al.</italic>, 2024</xref>), podría representar una alternativa para introducir de manera específica, genes de resistencia en las variedades de frijol. Adicionalmente, las tecnologías basadas en las llamadas “ciencias ómicas”, ofrecen información valiosa para comprender la interacción de <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> con el frijol. Los análisis proteómicos de las variedades de frijol resistentes al tizón de halo, aportan información para entender la naturaleza de esa resistencia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Cooper <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Oblessuc <italic>et al.</italic>, 2022</xref>), además de generar información que podría ser utilizada para desarrollo de estrategias de control, basadas en los análisis de marcadores genéticos y proteicos de dichas variedades. El uso de bacteriófagos en el control biológico también es una alternativa prometedora y ecológica para el control de bacterias patógenas. En el 2018, Quiñones-Aguilar y cols., aislaron bacteriófagos nativos del estado de Zacatecas y evaluaron su actividad lítica contra cepas virulentas de <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolico-</italic></p>
				<p><italic>la</italic>. De esta manera, se identificó un bacteriófago capaz de disminuir hasta un 60% el daño provocado por el patovar <italic>phaseolicola</italic> en ejotes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Quiñones-Aguilar <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018</xref>). En México, las técnicas moleculares enfocadas en el manejo del tizón de halo y demás enfermedades en los cultivos, son limitadas, por lo que es necesario impulsar el desarrollo de nuevas estrategias que complementen el manejo del tizón de halo del cultivo de frijol en la agricultura mexicana.</p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusiones</title>
			<p><italic>Pseudomonas syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> es una especie bacteriana con gran capacidad patogénica, por tal motivo, se ha convertido en un modelo de estudio para la comprensión de la interacción molecular planta-patógeno. Las regiones Pht y Pbo, que contienen genes involucrados en la biosíntesis de la faseolotoxina, juegan un papel clave en el desarrollo del tizón de halo. Las evidencias sustentan que la adquisición de las regiones Pht y Pbo se llevó a cabo a través de eventos de transferencia horizontal, una actividad común entre los fitopatógenos. De esta manera, adquieren material genético foráneo y lo controlan a través de su sistema de regulación endógeno; que para el caso de los genes <italic>pht</italic> y <italic>pbo</italic>, fueron incorporados a la regulación global del sistema de dos componentes, GacS/GacA y del regulador IHF. Para <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic>, la adquisición de las Regiones Pht y Pbo ha sido un evento favorable, ya que le permitió aumentar su grado de virulencia, de manera que el resultado de esta nueva habilidad es devastar con mayor eficiencia al cultivo de frijol. Los estudios a nivel molecular de los factores de patogenicidad y virulencia de <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic>, como es el caso de la faseolotoxina, ofrecen información valiosa para el diseño de estrategias de diagnóstico y manejo del tizón de halo. El desarrollo de nuevas estrategias moleculares favorecerá el diagnóstico temprano, la identificación de nuevas cepas patógenas y el desarrollo de cultivos resistentes, lo que a su vez reducirá el impacto económico de las enfermedades en cultivos de importancia agronómica como el frijol.</p>
		</sec>
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	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="en">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Molecular aspects of phaseolotoxin biosynthesis produced by <italic>Pseudomonas syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic></article-title>
			</title-group>
			<abstract>
				<title><italic>ABSTRACT</italic></title>
				<p> </p>
				<sec>
					<title>Background/Objective. </title>
					<p>Phaseolotoxin is produced by one of the most important and studied phytopathogens in the agricultural area: <italic>Pseudomonas syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic>. This bacterium causes halo blight, a disease that devastates the bean crop. The success of <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> is related to its genetic information, which allows it to synthesize deleterious metabolites for its host, such as phaseolotoxin. This research aimed to analyze the molecular basis of the mechanism of action, immunity, genetics involved in the biosynthesis of phaseolotoxin, molecular diagnostic strategies, and molecular techniques developed in Mexico to manage bean halo blight.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Materials and Methods. </title>
					<p>The search and analysis of the most relevant scientific information regarding the biosynthesis of phaseolotoxin and the molecular studies of the pathogenicity and virulence factors of <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> has contributed to the development of molecular strategies focused on the diagnosis and management of halo blight in beans.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Results. </title>
					<p><italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> produces phaseolotoxin, responsible for forming the chlorotic halo characteristic of halo blight, this toxin is an inhibitor of OCTase, an enzyme that participates in the arginine synthesis pathway in beans. The Pht and Pbo chromosomal regions contain genes involved in the synthesis and immunity of phaseolotoxin, and the expression of these genes is regulated by the GacS/GacA system and temperature. The identification of genes involved in the synthesis of pathogenicity and virulence factors, such as phaseolotoxin, has allowed the development of strategies for diagnosis and management of the disease based on DNA amplification and the use of molecular markers that facilitate the identification of bean cultivars resistant to the pathogen.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Conclusion. </title>
					<p>Molecular studies have contributed to understanding how the <italic>phaseolicola</italic> pathovar produces phaseolotoxin. This information has been essential to understanding how bacteria have evolved from non-pathogenic to pathogenic variants. In addition, they provide information that allows the development of new strategies for timely diagnosis and contributes to strategies for managing halo blight.</p>
				</sec>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>Pathogenicity</kwd>
				<kwd>Virulence</kwd>
				<kwd>Phytotoxins</kwd>
				<kwd>Horizontal Transference</kwd>
				<kwd>Genetic Regulation.</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introduction</title>
				<p>The common bean (<italic>Phaseolus vulgaris</italic>) is a highly important food and commercial crop worldwide. This crop is widely adapted to environments with moderate growth temperatures and its popularity is due to it being easy to produce (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Foyer <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>). The quality, yield and production of this crop is currently affected by numerous phytosanitary problems, some of which are created by diverse microorganisms that limit the quality of agricultural products and are responsible for enormous economic losses, in addition to being a significant threat for the world’s food security (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">Sundin <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>). Among these microorganisms is <italic>Pseudomonas syringae</italic>, one of the most important pathogens for this crop and others such as tomato, kiwifruit, tobacco, lime, oat, wheat, soybean, cucumber, rice and others (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Chen <italic>et al.</italic>, 2022</xref>). The <italic>P. syringae</italic> species includes 62 pathovars, depending on the host they infect, including most of the phytopathogens of the <italic>Pseudomonas</italic> genus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Bull <italic>et al.</italic>, 2010</xref>)<italic>.</italic> The success of a phytopathogen to infect, colonize and induce a series of symptoms in its host is directly related to its genetic information. This information, represented by the genes, helps it synthesize and secrete metabolites that are deleterious to the plant (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Lamichhane <italic>et al.</italic>, 2015</xref>). The diverse <italic>P. syringae</italic> pathovars are known for producing a wide spectrum of metabolites that act as pathogenicity and virulence factors; among these are phytotoxins, which directly damage the plant cells and influence the development of the disease. <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> is the causal agent of the halo blight disease in bean, which can be devastating, particularly when adverse weather conditions persist. The presence of a chlorotic halo that characterizes this disease is precisely caused by phaseolotoxin, a phytotoxin produced by <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Arrebola <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>). The genetics related to the synthesis of phytotoxins has become remarkably important, since the genes coding for the enzymes involved in the assembly, maturation and even those required for secretion are clustered in chromosomal fragments known as genomic islands. These islands contain all the elements needed to be transferred horizontally between the different pathovars. These genetic transfer mechanisms are highly relevant because the bacteria acquire new pathogenic abilities (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Melnyk <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>). Advances in the genetic study of pathogenicity and virulence factors, such as phytotoxins, favor the understanding of how pathogens acquire and produce the molecular arsenal needed for the development of diseases in plant systems (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Ichinose <italic>et al.</italic>, 2013</xref>).</p>
				<p>Considering that every <italic>P. syringae</italic> pathovar produces a diversity of phytotoxins, this revision will focus on the analysis of one of those cases: the genetic involved in the biosynthesis of the phaseolotoxin produced by the <italic>phaseolicola</italic> pathovar and its involvement in the development of the halo blight in bean. This information essentially contributes to the understanding of how this phytopathogenic bacterium has acquired genes needed to synthesize phaseolotoxin and how it has coordinated its endogenous regulation system for this purpose. In addition, the potential of this type of genetic studies on the development of strategies for the diagnosis and timely management of diseases is analyzed.</p>
				<sec>
					<title><italic>P. syringae pv. phaseolicola</italic></title>
					<p>Halo blight is one of the main diseases that affects the bean crop and it is caused by the bacterium <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic>. This bacterium persists in the seed and activates after the seed germination; it can survive as a parasite in the plant tissue and as an epiphyte on the surface of leaves. The bacterium has been observed in most bean-producing regions of the world and it has become a highly destructive phytopathogen for this crop, causing losses that range between 50 and 100% of the production (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Arnold <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>; Lépiz-Ildefonso <italic>et al.</italic>, 2015). The bacterium can be found in the different phenological stages affecting leaves, stem, pods and seeds. In leaves, small, aqueous lesions appear which later become necrotic; approximately one week after infection, one or more lesions become surrounded by a necrotic halo (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 1</xref> A and B). Pods also develop reddish-brown, aqueous and sunken lesions (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 1</xref> C and D). Infections in pods can be transferred to seeds, causing them to shrink, discolor or become smaller than normal. The bacterium develops in a range of 28-30 °C with a relative humidity higher of over 80%, although more severe symptoms appear at temperatures ranging between 18 and 20 ºC. A reduction in temperature induces the production of phaseolotoxin, which is responsible for the formation of the chlorotic halo and the characteristic yellowing observed during the development of the disease (Arnold <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">Xin <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018</xref>).</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f6">
							<label>Figure 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Symptoms produced by <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> on bean. A y B, Symptoms on leaves. C y D, Symptoms on pods. Source: Adapted from Schwartz, (2008); Harveson, (2009).</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT23082-gf6.jpg"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title><italic>Phaseolotoxin and its action mechanism</italic></title>
					<p>From a chemical point of view, the structure of phaseolotoxin is unusual and has two different components: an inorganic residue, N<sup>δ</sup>- (N’-Sulphodiaminophosphinyl) and a tripeptide, L-ornithyl-alanyl-homoarginine (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 2</xref>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Arrebola <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>). This toxin acts as a reversible inhibitor of the enzyme ornithine carbamoyltransferase (OCTase EC 2.1.3.3.), codified by the gene <italic>argF</italic>. OCTase catalyzes the conversion of ornithine and carbamoylphosphate into citrulline in the arginine synthesis pathway. In the plant cell, phaseolotoxin is hydrolyzed due to the action of peptides to produce N<sup>δ</sup>-(N´-sulphodiaminophosphynil)-L-ornithine (called octicidin or PSOrn), which is an irreversible inhibitor of OCTase and the predominant form in which the toxin is found in infected bean plants (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Sawada <italic>et al.</italic>, 2002</xref>). This inhibition causes an accumulation of ornithine and an arginine deficiency. As the toxin spreads through the foliar tissue, it alters the synthesis of the chlorophyll, causing chlorosis and growth inhibition in plant tissues, finally leading to the death of host cells. In addition, the systemic invasion of the plant is facilitated by the</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f7">
							<label>Figure 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Phaseolotoxin structure and PSOrn, product of phaseolotoxin degradation by plant peptidases.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT23082-gf7.jpg"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>effect of the phaseolotoxin, thus contributing significantly to the virulence of the</p>
					<p>pathogen (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Arnold <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>).</p>
					<p>Originally, phaseolotoxin was considered to be restricted to <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic>, although it is also produced by the pathovar <italic>actinidiae</italic>, which infects kiwifruit (<italic>Actinidia chinensis</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Fujikawa and Sawada, 2019</xref>), and by a strain of the pathovar <italic>syringae</italic>, isolated from <italic>Vicia sativa</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Tourte and Manceau, 1995</xref>). Several isolates belonging to the pathovar <italic>phaseolicola</italic> synthesize phaseolotoxin when grown at 18-20 °C, although its degree of production may vary between isolates. On the other hand, strains have been identified that belong to the pathovar <italic>phaseolicola</italic>, which are unable to produce it, since they lack all or part of the genes required for their synthesis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Gonzalez <italic>et al.</italic>, 2003</xref>).</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title><italic>Immunity to phaseolotoxin</italic></title>
					<p>Initially, determining how <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> was immune to its own toxin was a mystery. The toxic effect of phaseolotoxin was evident, since it does not only inhibit OCTase from the bean, but also a large variety of plant and bacterial OCTases, and even from mammals (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Bender <italic>et al.</italic>, 1999</xref>). In these organisms, it causes an auxotrophy phenotype to arginine, which is alleviated by adding arginine or citrulline to the growth medium. By contrast, <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> strains that produce phaseolotoxin are insensitive to its toxin and do not require arginine or citrulline supplements. Everything was clarified when the gene <italic>argK,</italic> which codifies for a phaseolotoxin-resistant OCTase, was identified and characterized (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Mosqueda <italic>et al.</italic>, 1990</xref>). Thus, <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> was observed to present two OCTase activities; one activity that is sensitive to the toxin produced at 28 °C and the activity of the resistant OCTase, which guarantees the optimum</p>
					<p>supply of arginine required for bacterial growth, under conditions of phaseolotoxin synthesis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Lopez-Lopez <italic>et al.</italic>, 2004</xref>). The knowledge on the bacterial resistance to the effect of its toxins has been used in several strategies to develop resistant plants. In the case of phaseolotoxin, <italic>argK</italic> has been used as transgene in tobacco plants (<italic>Nicotiana tabacum</italic>) and has been successful in developing plants that are resistant to the effect of phaseolotoxin (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">De la Fuente-Martinez <italic>et al.</italic>, 1992</xref>). Studies such as these can be extrapolated to other crops of agronomic interest, allowing for the generation of cultivars that are resistant to the attack of pathogens.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title><italic>The genetics behind the phaseolotoxin biosynthesis</italic></title>
					<p>Diverse studies have focused on the chemistry of phaseolotoxin, its form of action and its contribution to pathogenicity, although little is known about its biosynthesis. Through genetic analyses, relevant information has been provided to elucidate how this toxin is synthesized. The first insight into the genes involved in its synthesis was the identification and characterization of <italic>amtA</italic> and <italic>desI</italic>, which codify for an aminotransferase and one desaturase of fatty acids, respectively (Hernandez- Guzman and Alvarez-Morales, 2001; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">Zhang and Patil, 1997</xref>). We currently have the description and analysis of a 30,245 pb region of the chromosome of <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> NPS3121, called the Pht Region (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figure 3</xref>A), which contains 23 genes required for the synthesis of phaseolotoxin, including the genes <italic>argK</italic>, <italic>amtA</italic> and <italic>desI</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Aguilera <italic>et al.</italic>, 2007</xref>). The Pht Region is delimited by insertion sequences and transposases, suggesting that this fragment constitutes a genomic island that could have been acquired through horizontal transfer events (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Murillo <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>). The precise function of the codified genes in the Pht Region remains uncertain and some of these genes have been studied further (Aguilera <italic>et al.</italic>, 2012; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Arai y Kino, 2008</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Chen <italic>et al.</italic>, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Gonzalez-Villanueva <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014</xref>). Thus, it has been possible to assign a function to them in the phaseolotoxin synthesis and regulation process (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 1</xref>).</p>
					<p>Phaseolotoxin is composed of a tripeptide and its synthesis has been proposed to</p>
					<p>be via a mechanism called a non-ribosomal peptide synthesis. Enzyme complexes such as Non-Ribosomal Peptide Synthases (NRPS) and/or Polyketide Synthases (PKS) participate in this process. The gene PSPPH_4550, identified as an NRPS, participates in the phaseolotoxin synthesis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">De la Torre-Zavala <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>). Interestingly, the gene PSPPH_4550 is codified outside of the Pht region and is part of another genomic island called the Pbo Region. This fragment contains 16 genes (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figure 3</xref>B) some of which codify for NRPS or PKS (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Table 2</xref>), suggesting its participation in the synthesis of the tripeptide (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Guardado-Valdivia <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>). To date, multiple genes involved in the phaseolotoxin synthesis have been identified (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 1</xref> and 2), and functions have been assigned to some of them.</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f8">
							<label>Figure 3</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Graphic representation of the Pht and Pbo Regions on <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> chromosome. A, Pht Region operons. B, Pbo Region operons. Each arrow represents one gene, the direction of the arrow indicates the direction of transcription.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT23082-gf8.jpg"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t4">
							<label>Table 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Function of <italic>pht</italic> genes involved in phaseolotoxin synthesis.</title>
							</caption>
							<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Gene</th>
										<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Protein coded</th>
										<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Function</th>
										<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Reference</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style: italic;">argK</td>
										<td>Ornithine carbamoyltransferase </td>
										<td>Catalyze the reaction between carbamoyl phosphate and ornithine to form citrulline under phaseolotoxin synthesis conditions. </td>
										<td>Lopez-Lopez et al., 2004 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style: italic;">amtA</td>
										<td>Amidinotransferase </td>
										<td>Catalyze the reversible transfer reaction of amidino groups to synthesize L-homoarginine. </td>
										<td>Hernandez-Guzman y Alvarez-Morales, 2001 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style: italic;">desI</td>
										<td>Fatty acid desaturase </td>
										<td>Dehydrogenate fatty acids, creating double bonds between carbon-carbon; temperature perception. </td>
										<td>Zhang y Patil, 1997 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style: italic;">phtU</td>
										<td>L-aminoacid ligase </td>
										<td>Catalyze the condensation of amino acids. </td>
										<td>Arai y Kino, 2008 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style: italic;">phtQ</td>
										<td>Peptide ligase </td>
										<td>Catalyze the formation of peptide bonds. </td>
										<td>Chen et al., 2015 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style: italic;">phtL</td>
										<td>Pyruvate phosphate dikinase </td>
										<td>Transfer phosphate groups from pyrophosphate and phosphoenolpyruvate to an AMP molecule to synthesize ATP, phosphate, and pyruvate. </td>
										<td>Gonzalez-Villanueva et al., 2014 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style: italic;">phtA</td>
										<td>Nucleoside triphosphate hydrolase </td>
										<td>Hydrolyze the beta-gamma phosphate bond of a nucleoside triphosphate. </td>
										<td>Aguilera et al., 2012 </td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t5">
							<label>Table 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Prediction of the function of <italic>pbo</italic> genes involved in the phaseolotoxin synthesis.</title>
							</caption>
							<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Gene</th>
										<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Protein coded</th>
										<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Function</th>
										<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Reference</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style: italic;">pboO</td>
										<td>Synthetase c </td>
										<td>Form amide bonds in the synthesis process of non-ribosomal peptides. </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">Guardado-Valdivia et al., 2021 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style: italic;">pboM</td>
										<td>Ketoacyl transferase </td>
										<td>Catalyze the elongations of fatty acids in the synthesis of polyketides. </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">Guardado-Valdivia et al., 2021 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style: italic;">pboA</td>
										<td>AMP-binding enzym </td>
										<td>Condense and adenylate in the process of synthesis of non-ribosomal peptides. </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">De la Torre-Zavala et al., 2011 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style: italic;">pboB</td>
										<td>Ketoacyl synthase </td>
										<td>Catalyze the decarboxylating Claisen condensation of fatty acids in the synthesis of polyketides. </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">Guardado-Valdivia et al., 2021 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style: italic;">pboC</td>
										<td>Phosphopantheine binding domain </td>
										<td>Bind amino acids and activated fatty acids in the synthesis of non-ribosomal peptides. </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">Guardado-Valdivia et al., 2021 </td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<p>However, there is still much work to be done to elucidate the functions of the rest of the genes, and particularly, those genes involved in the synthesis of the inorganic compound of the toxin.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title><italic>Regulation of the phaseolotoxin synthesis</italic></title>
					<p>It is evident that the phytopathogens require genetic mechanisms that give them the ability to adapt in response to their conditions. In phytopathogenic bacteria, the regulation systems of two components allow for the adaptation to different conditions in response to the environmental signals, transferring the signal to transcription factors, which activate the gene expression (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Sultan <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>). <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> has several two-component systems, although the GacS/ GacA system is of great importance due to its role in the control of virulence and pathogenicity determinants, ecological adaptation, <italic>Quorum sensing</italic> (<italic>Qs</italic>) systems, and the synthesis of diverse secondary metabolites (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Latour, 2020</xref>). The GacS/ GacA system controls all genes involved in the synthesis and regulation of the phaseolotoxin in <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> NPS3121 known to date (De la Torre- Zavala <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Ramirez-Zapata <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>). Other global regulators, such as the IHF transcriptional factor, also participates in this process. The function of IHF as a regulator of the expression of virulence factors has been widely reported (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Arvizu-Gomez <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Reverchon <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>). These findings reveal that some genes acquired through horizontal transfer events can be integrated into the preexisting global regulation systems (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Redondo-Salvo <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>). In this sense, the genes involved in the biosynthesis of phaseolotoxin were not the exception.</p>
					<p>For <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> NPS3121, the descent in temperature is also a determining factor in the production of phaseolotoxin. This change controls the transcription of the <italic>pht</italic> and <italic>pbo</italic> genes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Aguilera <italic>et al.</italic>, 2007</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Guardado-Valdivia <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>). The information gathered so far allows to propose a signaling and regulatory method for the biosynthesis of phaseolotoxin in <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> NPS3121 (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figure 4</xref>). This model schematically represents the stimulus and signaling cascade responsible for triggering the synthesis of phaseolotoxin.</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f9">
							<label>Figure 4</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Model of signaling and regulation of phaseolotoxin biosynthesis in <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> NPS3121. Temperature is sensed by the GacS membrane sensor, which autophosphorylates therefore (1). Phosphorylated GacS transfers phosphate to the response regulator GacA (2). GacA controls the expression of <italic>pht</italic> genes, mediated by the IHF regulator. GacA also controls the transcription of the <italic>pbo</italic> genes (3). Finally, phaseolotoxin is synthesized, which inhibits bean OCTase and prevents the synthesis of arginine. Consequently, the chlorotic halo develops.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT23082-gf9.jpg"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title><italic>Transfer of the Pht and Pbo Regions between pathovars</italic></title>
					<p>In bacteria, the horizontal transfer of genes through accessory genetic elements such as plasmids, transposons, prophages or genomic islands helps them acquire and express genes from a wide range of species (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Carraro <italic>et al.</italic>, 2017</xref>). The Pht region has been suggested to constitute a genomic island that <italic>P. syringae</italic> acquired using horizontal transfer mechanisms. This has been supported by the similarity of the organization and the sequence of the different versions of the Pht region identified in the pathovars <italic>phaseolicola</italic> and <italic>actinidae</italic>, which clearly denote a common origin and a preserved functionality (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Murillo <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>). Additionally, finding</p>
					<p><italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> strains lacking the Pht region has also supported this proposal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Gonzalez <italic>et al.</italic>, 2003</xref>). The Pbo Region also comprises another genomic island. Despite both islands participating in the synthesis of phaseolotoxin, there is no correlation between the possession of the Pbo Region and the Pht Region, suggesting that its acquisition was carried out independently, and once acquired, they were incorporated into the chromosome of <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic>, remaining under the control of the preexisting global regulation systems (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">De la Torre-Zavala <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Guardado-Valdivia <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>). Pathogenic bacteria have evolved from related non-pathogenic organisms, due to the acquisition of genetic material that codifies for multiple pathogenicity and virulence factors. In regards to the <italic>P. syringae</italic> pathovars, it is important to understand how the genetic mobility mechanisms have contributed to their pathogenicity and virulence, because, in the end, this is what has turned this species into one of the 10 most important phytopathogenic bacteria in the world (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Mansfield <italic>et al.</italic>, 2012</xref>). In terms of the pathovar <italic>phaseolicola</italic>, studies on the molecular genetics of its interaction with bean and the evolution of its pathogenicity and virulence have contributed with important discoveries to the field of the plant-microorganism interactions, leading <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> to be considered a model for the study of plant-pathogen molecular interaction (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Arnold <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>).</p>
					<sec>
						<title><italic>Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola molecular detection strategies</italic></title>
						<p>One of the most important requirements to manage plant diseases is the timely identification of the causal agent. There are currently biotechnological techniques that accelerate the achievement of results and have enabled the timely identification of phytopathogenic bacteria. Additionally, they have complemented traditional diagnostic processes such as visual examination, pathogen culturing, microscopy and pathogenicity tests.</p>
						<p>In terms of the detection and identification of <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic>, diverse molecular strategies have been developed in order to carry out an accurate and timely detection. Within the first strategies reported is the Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA). The antisera obtained specifically recognized the <italic>phaseolicola</italic> pathovar, without showing a cross-reaction with other <italic>P. syringae</italic> pathovars (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">Wyatt <italic>et al.</italic>, 1989</xref>). Around the same time, a strategy was developed based on the hybridization of DNA probes carrying genes involved in the synthesis of phaseolotoxin. This technique helped detect and identify the pathovar <italic>phaseolicola</italic> from seeds and macerated samples of tissue with lesions (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Schaad <italic>et al.</italic>, 1989</xref>).</p>
						<p>With the development of the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), strategies were implemented to detect and identify multiple phytopathogens and <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> was not an exception. Specific oligonucleotides were designed for</p>
						<p>this purpose from the available genes involved in the biosynthesis of phaseolotoxin (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Mosqueda-Cano and Herrera-Estrella, 1997</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Schaad <italic>et al.</italic>, 1995</xref>; Schaad <italic>et al.</italic>, 2007). <xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Table 3</xref> describes some of the oligonucleotides used for the identification and the regions they amplify.</p>
						<p>
							<table-wrap id="t6">
								<label>Table 3</label>
								<caption>
									<title>Oligonucleotides used to identify strains of <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> producing phaseolotoxin.</title>
								</caption>
								<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
									<thead>
										<tr>
											<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Name</th>
											<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Sequence</th>
											<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Target</th>
											<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Reference</th>
										</tr>
									</thead>
									<tbody>
										<tr>
											<td>BRL519 BRL520 </td>
											<td>TTCATTCAAACCTCGCCCGTGTG TGAAAGGAGCCGCCGAAACTATTG </td>
											<td style="font-style: italic;">amtA</td>
											<td>Aguilera et al., 2007 </td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td>PA5.1 PA3.1 </td>
											<td>AGCTTCTCCTCAAAACACCTGC TGTTCGCCAGAGGCAGTCATG </td>
											<td style="font-style: italic;">desI</td>
											<td>Schaad et al., 1995 </td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td>62a 63a </td>
											<td>CAATGAAGATTACAAGCCTG GCTAGCTATCAGGGGACGAC </td>
											<td style="font-style: italic;">argK</td>
											<td>Mosqueda-Cano y Herrera-Estrella, 1997 </td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td>P3004L P3004R </td>
											<td>CTGTCTGGCAGCCACTACAAAG GGCTGCAAATTGTGGGATTT </td>
											<td>Tox-Region </td>
											<td>Rico et al., 2006 </td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td>AVR1-F AVR1-R </td>
											<td>CCGCCGTAGCAGGGCTTCAC GGACCAATCTCTTTTCTCAA </td>
											<td style="font-style: italic;">phtL</td>
											<td>Gonzalez et al., 2003 </td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td>PHTE-F PHTE-R </td>
											<td>AATATAGGCTTCAACTTCCTC CCAGGTCAACTCACTTCCG </td>
											<td style="font-style: italic;">phtE</td>
											<td>Gonzalez et al., 2003 </td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td>P25156 Ptx1I5c </td>
											<td>GCAAAAACGAAAACACCAGGCT ATCGCGCTGATCCGGAAAGG </td>
											<td style="font-style: italic;">phtA</td>
											<td>Aguilera et al., 2017 </td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td>P12556 P11311 </td>
											<td>TCCGGTTATCGCTTCAGGTCG GCAGTTTCTGATCTTGGGCCC </td>
											<td style="font-style: italic;">phtM-N</td>
											<td>Aguilera et al., 2017 </td>
										</tr>
									</tbody>
								</table>
							</table-wrap>
						</p>
						<p>It is important to consider the existence of <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> isolates that do not produce phaseolotoxin and therefore cannot be detected using these oligonucleotides (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Rico <italic>et al.</italic>, 2006</xref>). Additionally, the production of phaseolotoxin is not only a characteristic of the pathovar <italic>phaseolicola</italic>, so these assays could also detect other pathovars (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Tamura <italic>et al.</italic>, 2002</xref>). According to this, new methodologies have been designed, such as the TaqMan real-time PCR, in which specific oligonucleotides based on the site-specific recombinase gene were used. With this strategy, we were able to differentiate between phaseolotoxin producing and non- producing <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> strains (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Cho <italic>et al.</italic>, 2010</xref>). Another DNA amplification technique, known as a Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP), has been adapted to facilitate the characterization and quick and specific identification of the pathovar <italic>phaseolicola</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Li <italic>et al.</italic>, 2009</xref>). The molecular diagnosis of <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> is crucial for the efficient management of halo</p>
						<p>blight in bean crops. Although the molecular diagnosis can be more expensive and require specialized infrastructure, its high precision, speed and capacity to detect infections in an early and quantitative way make it a crucial tool in the fight against this pathogen. In time, molecular diagnosis techniques are expected to continue improving and become more accessible, which will allow for a more efficient management of bacterial diseases in agriculture.</p>
					</sec>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title><italic>Molecular strategies to manage halo blight in bean. An alternative for agriculture in Mexico</italic></title>
					<p>In Mexico, the management of halo blight in bean has become a challenge for farmers, due to the aggressive nature of the disease and its ability to spread quickly (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Félix-Gastélum <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>). <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> is widely distributed in the country (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figure 5</xref>), and is therefore a risk for the country’s bean production (Félix-Gastélum <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Jiménez-Hernández <italic>et al.</italic>, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Navarrete and Acosta-Gallegos, 2000</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Quiñones-Aguilar <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018</xref>). For this reason, for the management of halo blight, strategies have been developed such as the application of agricultural antibiotics, the elimination of harvest residues, crop rotation or the use of resistant bean varieties, and others (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Schwartz <italic>et al.</italic>, 2005</xref>). By combining these measures, it has been possible to control the development of the disease, although it has not been enough.</p>
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							<label>Figure 5</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Representative map of the distribution of <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> in Mexico. The states marked with yellow color indicate the presence of this bacteria.</title>
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							<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT23082-gf10.jpg"/>
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					<p>Based on advances in biotechnology, molecular strategies have emerged as a powerful tool that can complement conventional strategies and achieve a more efficient and sustainable management of pathogens. Genetic resistance is one of the most effective strategies to control plant diseases. In Mexico, the use of molecular markers has favored the identification of bean varieties, such as Flor de Mayo M38, San Rafael, Pinto Laguna 80 and Pinto Saltillo, which are resistant to <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Jiménez-Hernández <italic>et al.</italic>, 2023</xref>). Despite this, resistance in the commercial varieties available in Mexico continues to be limited, therefore the development of new resistant varieties with novel molecular techniques such as CRISPR/Cas9 genetic editing (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">Thomas <italic>et al.</italic>, 2024</xref>) may be an alternative to specifically introduce genetic resistance in the bean varieties. In addition, technologies based on the so-called “omic sciences” offer valuable information to understand the interaction of <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> with the bean. Proteomic analyses of the halo blight-resistant bean varieties provide information to understand the nature of this resistance (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Cooper <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Oblessuc <italic>et al.</italic>, 2022</xref>), as well as generating information that could be used to develop control strategies based on the analysis of genetic and protein markers of these varieties. The use of bacteriophages in biological control is also a promising and eco-friendly alternative for the management of pathogenic bacteria. In 2018, Quiñones-Aguilar <italic>et al</italic>. isolated native bacteriophages native to the state of Zacatecas and evaluated their lytic activity against virulent strains of <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic>. In this way, they identified a bacteriophage capable of reducing the damage caused by the <italic>phaseolicola</italic> pathovar in green beans by up to 60% (Quiñones-Aguilar <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018). In Mexico, molecular techniques focused on managing halo blight and other crop diseases are limited, making it necessary to promote the development of new strategies to complement the management of halo blight in bean crops in Mexican agriculture.</p>
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				<title>Conclusions</title>
				<p><italic>Pseudomonas syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic> is a bacterial species with a great pathogenic ability, and has therefore become a study model for the understanding of the plant-pathogen molecular interaction. The regions Pht and Pbo, which contain genes involved in the biosynthesis of phaseolotoxin, play a key role in the development of halo blight. Evidence shows that the acquisition of the Pht and Pbo regions was carried out via horizontal transfer events, a common activity among phytopathogens. Thus, they acquire foreign genetic material and control it through its endogenous regulation system, which, in the case of the genes <italic>pht</italic> and <italic>pbo</italic>, were incorporated into the global regulation systems of the components, GacS/</p>
				<p>GacA and of the regulator IHF. For <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic>, acquiring the Pht and Pbo regions has been a favorable event, since it helped it increase its degree of virulence in such a way that the result of this new ability is to devastate the bean crop with greater efficiency. Molecular studies of the pathogenicity and virulence factors of <italic>P. syringae</italic> pv. <italic>phaseolicola</italic>, such as in the case of phaseolotoxin, offers valuable information for the design of diagnostic strategies and the management of the halo blight. The development of new molecular strategies will favor the early diagnosis, the identification of new pathogenic strains and the development of resistant crops, which will, in turn, reduce the economic impact of diseases in agronomically important crops such as the bean.</p>
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