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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">rmfi</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Revista mexicana de fitopatología</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Rev. mex. fitopatol</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">0185-3309</issn>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2007-8080</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedad Mexicana de Fitopatología A.C.</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.18781/R.MEX.FIT.2401-7</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="other">00009</article-id> 
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artículos de revisión</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title><italic>Tobamovirus fructirugosum</italic> una enfermedad emergente: revisión y situación actual en México</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Gutiérrez</surname>
						<given-names>Ubilfrido Vásquez</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Delgado-Ortiz</surname>
						<given-names>Juan Carlos</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1">*</xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Frías-Treviño</surname>
						<given-names>Gustavo Alberto</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Aguirre-Uribe</surname>
						<given-names>Luis Alberto</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Flores-Olivas</surname>
						<given-names>Alberto</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="original"> Departamento de Parasitología Agrícola, Postgrado en Ciencias en Parasitología Agrícola, Universidad Autónoma Agraria Antonio Narro, #1923, Calzada Antonio Narro, Buenavista, Saltillo, Coah., CP 25315, México. d_ubilfrido.vazquezG@uaaan.edu.mx </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidad Autónoma Agraria Antonio Narro</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Autónoma Agraria Antonio Narro</institution>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
				<email>d_ubilfrido.vazquezG@uaaan.edu.mx</email>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="original"> Investigador por México CONAHCYT-UAAAN; México. </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">CONAHCYT-UAAAN</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">CONAHCYT-UAAAN</institution>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1"><bold>
 <italic>*Autor de correspondencia</italic>:</bold> Juan Carlos Delgado-Ortiz <email>moe_788@hotmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>23</day>
				<month>03</month>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<season>Jan-Apr</season>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>43</volume>
			<issue>1</issue>
			<elocation-id>RMEXFIT24017</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>28</day>
					<month>01</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>11</day>
					<month>09</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
					<license-p>Este es un artículo publicado en acceso abierto bajo una licencia Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumen</title>
				<p> </p>
				<sec>
					<title>Antecedentes/Objetivo. </title>
					<p>La especie <italic>Tobamovirus fructirugosum</italic> (ToBRFV) es considerado una plaga cuarentenaria a nivel mundial que limita la producción de <italic>Solanum lycopersicum</italic> y <italic>Capsicum annum</italic>, actualmente presente en tres países del continente americano. El objetivo de este trabajo fue profundizar en la variabilidad genética del ToBRFV con respecto a los diversos aislados, la caracterización físicomolecular y sintomática, los métodos tradicionales y más actuales implementadas para el diagnóstico, rango de hospedantes reservorios del virus, y la epidemiología.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Resultados. </title>
					<p>ToBRFV se generó de una mutación resultado de la recombinación genética con TMV, considerado principal progenitor y ToMMV progenitor secundario. Análisis filogenéticos reportan la existencia de cinco clados con respecto a la diversidad genética del ToBRFV. Los primeros cebadores para la detección se diseñaron en 2015 que codifican proteínas de replicación, movimiento y cápside. Los métodos serológicos pueden ser utilizados para un diagnóstico preventivo, mientras que las moleculares y NGS pueden confirmar la infección por el virus aún en bajas concentraciones en la planta. Se reportan 16 familias de malezas y cultivos hospedantes, registrados en 47 países. Para lograr una estrategia efectiva, es necesario disminuir las fuentes de inóculo, desarrollar compuestos inhibidores de la transmisión mecánica y el desarrollo de genotipos tolerantes.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Conclusión. </title>
					<p>ToBRFV está distribuido a nivel nacional, y representa un riesgo fitosanitario para México; el análisis exhaustivo del estudio de técnicas de diagnóstico, rango de hospedantes, diseminación, epidemiología y estrategias de control, contribuye al conocimiento del ToBRFV.</p>
				</sec>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
				<title>Palabras clave:</title>
				<kwd>Diagnóstico</kwd>
				<kwd>epidemiología</kwd>
				<kwd>ToBRFV</kwd>
				<kwd>progreso del virus</kwd>
				<kwd>variabilidad genética</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="12"/>
				<table-count count="4"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="125"/>
				<page-count count="0"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introducción</title>
			<p>Los estudios de tobamovirus, han mostrado importancia en todas las áreas del campo agronómico y científico; debido a su diversidad genética, mecanismos de transmisión y adaptación de los virus, evolución del rango de hospedantes, nueva clasificación de taxones y a las interacciones virus-planta (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Aiewsakun y Katzourakis, 2016</xref>). Se ha postulado que las especies pertenecientes al género <italic>Tobamovirus</italic>, surgieron hace 140-120 millones de años a la par con la aparición de las angiospermas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Gibbs, 1999</xref>). En este contexto no existía una interacción planta-patógeno, todo se encontraba en constante homeostasis, por lo que los virus subsistían en plantas silvestres. Sin embargo, con la llegada de las prácticas de agricultura, estos se convirtieron en patógenos de plantas solanáceas y de otras familias (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">Lartey <italic>et al</italic>., 1996</xref>).</p>
			<p>Una de las principales familias es la <italic>Virgaviridae,</italic> la cual está conformado por 5 géneros de virus fitopatógenos, entre ellos el género <italic>Tobamovirus</italic> con mayor importancia a nivel mundial, que constituye a 37 especies (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Adams <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Dombrovsky <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>a). Los virus conocidos con mayor importancia económica: tobacco mosaic virus (TMV, especie <italic>Tobamovirus tabaci</italic>), tomato mosaic virus (ToMV, especie <italic>Tobamovirus tomatotessellati</italic>), tobacco mild green mosaic virus (TMGMV, especie <italic>Tobamovirus mititessellati</italic>), pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV, especie <italic>Tobamovirus capsici</italic>), tomato mottle mosaico virus (ToMMV, especie <italic>Tobamovirus maculatessellati</italic>) y tomato brown rugose fruit virus (ToBRFV, especie <italic>Tobamovirus fructirugosum</italic>) (EPPO, 2023). Siendo el primer tobamovirus, aislado y descrito (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Ivanovsky, 1892</xref>) fue el TMV, originó una epidemia que empezó causando pérdidas en zonas productoras de tabaco en Países Bajos y que posteriormente se extendió en todas las regiones del mundo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">Shen <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>). Posteriormente, años más tarde se descubrieron otras especies como como: yellow tailflower mild mottle virus (YTMMV, especie <italic>Tobamovirus anthocercis</italic>) en Australia, afectando dos especies de solanáceas de ornato (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B118">Wylie <italic>et al</italic>., 2014</xref>). El ToMV (Skotnicki <italic>et al</italic>., 1976) y el ToMMV infectando plantas de jitomate y pimiento en México (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Li <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>). Pese a que todas las especies virales pertenecientes a este género son agresivos patógenos emergentes, que han causado pérdidas devastadoras en cultivos, pero ninguna de ellas puede igualarse con el impacto económico del tomato brown rugose fruit virus considerado un virus emergente potencial. Es notable por ser el primer virus vegetal clasificado como causante de una pandemia a nivel mundial tras el SARS-CoV-2 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">Salem <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>).</p>
			<sec>
				<title>Origen y diversidad genética del ToBRFV</title>
				<p>Las especies virales del género <italic>Tobamovirus</italic> son patógenos de importancia en cultivos de solanáceas, destacando por la sintomatología que inducen y la necesidad de métodos serológicos específicos para su identificación. A pesar de ello algunos síntomas producidos son similares entre las especies que las ocasionan, como son: TMV, ToMV, ToMMV y ToBRFV (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Alon <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). Algunos estudios reportan que TMV, ToMV y ToBRFV pueden producir infecciones mixtas en plantas de jitomate lo que dificulta su diagnóstico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Jamous <italic>et al.,</italic> 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B122">Yan <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>a). ToBRFV fue identificado por primera vez en 2014 en una provincia de Ohad al sur de Israel. Posteriormente, un brote en viveros de jitomate en Jordania, condujo al aislamiento nombrado como “Tom1-jo”, y el nuevo virus fue denominado tomato brown rugose fruit viru<italic>s</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">Salem <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Luria <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>). A través de análisis filogenéticos que incluyeron TMV, ToMV, ToMMV y BPMV Salem <italic>et al.</italic> (2016) validaron a ToBRFV como una nueva especie dentro del género <italic>Tobamovirus.</italic> Por otro lado (Luria <italic>et al</italic>., 2017) a partir de postulados de Koch, microscopía electrónica de transmisión (MET), determinación parcial de rango de hospedantes, y análisis de antisueros para descartar reactividad cruzada con otros virus, concluyeron que el aislamiento ToBRFV-IL mostró una alta identidad con el aislamiento jordano.</p>
				<p>Los estudios biogenómicos actuales sobre ToBRFV, a raíz de nuevos brotes,han demostrado una variabilidad genética, con más del 99 % de identidad entre distintos aislamientos (Chanda <italic>et al</italic>., 2020). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Eichmeier <italic>et al</italic>. (2023</xref>) encontraron una similitud del 99.3 al 100 % entre 50 genomas de ToBRFV, mientras que <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B125">Zhang <italic>et al</italic>. (2022</xref>) diferenciaron claramente a los aislamientos de ToBRFV de TMV y ToMV en un estudio de 78 secuencias genómicas. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B122">Yan <italic>et al</italic>. (2021</xref>b) reportaron más del 99.6 % de similitud entre los aislamientos Tom1-Jo “KT383474.1”, ToBRFV IL y ToBRFV MX, sugiriendo un ancestro común para todos los aislamientos de ToBRFV (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">Oladokun <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Además, se ha identificado la recombinación de ToBRFV con otras especies virales, señalando a ToMMV como un progenitor secundario y a la cepa Ohio V de TMV como el principal progenitor (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">Salem <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>).</p>
				<p>Un análisis filogenético basado en el gen ORF4/CP (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 1</xref>), agrupó a l34 aislamientos de Turquía, en el primer clado, mientras que 49 aislamientos se ubicaron en el segundo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Çelik <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>). Dos aislamientos franceses “MW284988.1, MW284987.1” fueron clasificados en el tercer clado, mientras que 12 aislamientos de distintas regiones que incluyen EE. UU. (MT002973.1), México (TBRFV-MXCP “MK319944.1, MW349655.1”), Holanda y Países Bajos “MW314116.1”, Italia “OK62464678.1”, Bélgica (OM515231.1) y Reino Unido (TBRFV.21930919) formaron el quinto grupo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">Van de Vossenberg <italic>et al.,</italic> 2020</xref>. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Abrahamian <italic>et al</italic>. (2022</xref>)revelaron un análisis filogenético de aislados provenientes de EE. UU., México y Perú, donde reportan que la mayoría de estos se agrupan en el clado tres, evidenciando una diversidad genética limitada entre aislados a nivel mundial. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Eichmeier <italic>et al</italic>. (2023</xref>) analizaron el genoma completo del virus, identificaron al aislamiento checo de ToBRFV “OP413740.1” como perteneciente a un grupo independiente dentro del quinto clado, diferenciándolo de otros aislamientos europeos. Este panorama subraya la complejidad de la genómica de ToBRFV y la influencia de múltiples factores en su evolución y relación con los hospedantes.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f7">
						<label>Figura 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Análisis filogenéticos de secuencias reportadas en el NCBI de ToBRFV. Para la reconstrucción del árbol filogenético se utilizó el software Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis version 11 mediante el modelo de Neighbor joining con 10,000 réplicas (Bootstrap). Con una distancia genética de 0.02.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24017-gf7.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Características físico-moleculares del ToBRFV</title>
				<p>El ToBRFV posee partículas con forma de varillas rígidas de 300 nm de largo y 18 nm de diámetro. El genoma es de ARN monocatenario de sentido positivo (ARNss+) de ~6,400 nt. Con cuatro marcos de lecturas abiertos (ORF1, 2, 3 y 4) distintos, que codifican dos complejos de proteínas relacionadas con la replicación de 126 kDa (ORF1a) y 183 kDa (ORF1b), la proteína de movimiento (PM) de ~30 kDa (ORF2) y la proteína de cubierta (PC) de ~17.5 kDa (ORF3), expresadas mediante ARN subgenómicos coterminales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Eichmeier et al., 2023</xref>). Así mismo la</p>
				<p>proteína 126 kDa tiene la capacidad de actuar como silenciador del ARN, mientras que la PM 30 kDa facilita la translocación del virus de célula a célula (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B125">Zhang et al., 2022</xref>). Se ha señalado que la estrategia de control del ToBRFV se centra en la PC, la cual juega un papel crucial en el ensamblaje de las partículas virales y su desplazamiento a larga distancia dentro de la planta hospedera (Ishikawa et al., 2022).</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Descripción de sintomatología</title>
				<p>ToBRFV es un tobamovirus que se distingue por causar una variedad de síntomas en sus hospedantes, los cuales varían dependiendo del tipo de planta hospedante que afecta, la estación, la temperatura, las condiciones de crecimiento (invernadero o cielo abierto) y la edad de la planta en el momento de la infección (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Caruso et al., 2022</xref>). Estos síntomas tanto directos como indirectos impactan negativamente en la calidad y el valor comercial de los frutos, resultando en pérdidas significativas de la cosecha (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">Menzel et al., 2019</xref>). El desarrollo de los síntomas puede variar según el cultivo y las condiciones ambientales (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 2</xref>A y C). En jitomate los síntomas</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f8">
						<label>Figura 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Síntomas manifestados en jitomate por ToBRFV cultivados en invernadero. A) Plantas de jitomate a 180 días de la siembra mostrando alta incidencia de ToBRFV; B) Irregularidades en la maduración de los frutos; C) Plantas en estado de colapso debido a la severidad alta de ToBRFV; D) Presencia de mosaicos, moteados y ampollamientos en las hojas.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24017-gf8.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>son sistémicos, mientras que en plantas como Nicotiana tabacum, N. glutinosa, N. clevelandii, N. benthamiana, Chenopodium amaranticolor entre otras especies, los síntomas son principalmente locales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Chanda et al., 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">Vásquez-Gutiérrez et al., 2024</xref>). Aunque, los tobamovirus en general comparten expresión de síntomas similares, como mosaicos y amarillamientos, ToBRFV se caracteriza por inducir un síndrome más severo que cualquier otra especie dentro de este género. Entre los síntomas foliares destacan mosaicos, ampollamientos, enrollamientos, deformaciones (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 2</xref>D), reducción de la lámina foliar y retraso en el crecimiento; mientras que en frutos se observan deformación, manchas marrones, moteados, maduración irregular (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 2</xref>B), manchas amarillas y necrosis tanto externa como interna (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">González-Concha et al., 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Jewehan et al., 2022</xref>a; Vásquez-Gutiérrez et al., 2023a; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B125">Zhang et al., 2022</xref>). Esta diversidad de manifestaciones subraya la importancia de identificar y gestionar eficazmente la presencia de ToBRFV para minimizar su impacto en la producción agrícola.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Métodos de diagnóstico</title>
				<p>Los métodos de diagnósticos inician a partir de la identificación de síntomas en planta, la observación de oscuros mosaicos, deformación y estrechamiento en hojas en los brotes jóvenes apicales y rugosidad color marrón en frutos, confirma la presencia de ToBRFV (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Alfaro-Fernández et al., 2021</xref>). En la actualidad existen alternativas para la identificación y detección del ToBRFV, estas se pueden clasificar en diferentes tipos: diagnóstico por plantas diferenciales, microscopía electrónica de transmisión (MET), serológico, tiras reactivas y moleculares (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">González-Garza, 2017</xref>).</p>
				<p>Diagnóstico por plantas diferenciales. Los tobamovirus poseen característica de expresión sintomática distintiva que permite diferenciarlos de otros géneros (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">Roistacher, 1991</xref>). Hace algunos años se consideraba que ToBRFV sólo podía infectar de forma natural pimiento y jitomate como hospedantes naturales susceptibles (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Luria et al., 2017</xref>), estudios recientes demuestran que ToBRFV puede infectar de forma natural Convolvulus arvensis y Polycarpon tetraphyllum y servir como reservorio (Cultrona et al., 2024); sin embargo, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">Vásquez-Gutiérrez et al. (2024</xref>) identificaron que ToBRFV podía infectar 21 hospedantes de manera natural, confirmados por ELISA.</p>
				<p>ToBRFV puede infectar más de 40 especies pertenecientes a cuatro familias: Amaranthaceae, Apocynaceae, Asteraceae y Solanaceae (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Cuadro 1</xref>). Dado su cercanía filogenética con ToMV, ToBRFV tiene un rango de hospedantes similar (Chanda et al., 2020). La utilización de plantas diferenciales amplía la capacidad de diagnóstico para ToBRFV dado a la respuesta de hipersensibilidad (RH), aunque</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t1">
						<label> Cuadro</label>
						<caption>
							<title>1. Respuesta de hipersensibilidad en rango de hospedantes susceptibles a ToBRFV.</title>
						</caption>
						<table>
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="left">Hospedante/Sintomatología observada</th>
									<th align="center">Referencias</th>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<th align="left">Amaranthaceae</th>
									<th align="left"> </th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Gomphrena globosa3, 18, Amaranthus viridis14</td>
									<td align="left">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">Salem et al., 2022</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Asteraceae</td>
									<td align="left"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Emilia sonchifolia9, 10, 21, Glebionis coronaria3, 20, Lactuca serriola4, Verbesina encioloides14, Bidens pilosa14, Helianthus annus14, Sonchus oleraceus14, Titonia tubaeformis14</td>
									<td align="justify">Sabra et al., 2022; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">Salem et al., 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">Matzrafi et al., 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Luria et al., 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Chanda et al., 2021</xref>a; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">Vásquez-Gutiérrez et al., 2024</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Labiatae</td>
									<td align="left"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Marrubium vulgare13, 21</td>
									<td align="left">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">Vásquez-Gutiérrez et al., 2024</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Solanaceae</td>
									<td align="left"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Salanum lycopersicum3, 11, 23, S. eleagnifolium1, S. rostratum 4, 20, 21, 22, S. melongena1, S. arcanum8, 19, 20, 22, 24, S. Cheesmaniae7, 16, 19, 22, S. habrochaites3, 7, 16, S. nigrum3, 4, 12, 18, 20, S. pennellii3, 8, 22, S. peruvianum3, 8, 16, 22, S. pimpinellifolium3, 8, 16, 22, S. tuberosum1, 7, 21, S. sitiens3, Nicotiana glutinosa5, 10, N. tabacum Samsun 3, 5, 10, 20, N. occidentalis subsp. Hesperis5, 15, N. benthamiana2, 6, 5, 15, 21, 22, N. clevelandii 3, 10, 21 N. sylvestris3, 10, N. rustica2, 12, 14, 28, N. longiflora12, N. glauca14, Petunia hibrida3, Physalis angulata3, P. pubescens5, 7, Datura stramonium10, 14, Capsicum annum3, 5, 8, 13, 21</td>
									<td align="justify">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">Matzrafi et al., 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">Salem et al., 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B122">Yan et al., 2021</xref>a; Sabra et al., 2022; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Jewehan et al., 2022</xref>b; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Chanda et al., 2021</xref>a; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B125">Zhang et al., 2022</xref>; VásquezGutiérrez et al., 2024; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Luria et al., 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">Ortiz-Martínez et al., 2021</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Chenopodiaceae</td>
									<td align="left"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left"> Chenopodium berlandieri12, 18, Ch. amaranticolor14, Ch. album8, 12, 17 Ch. quinoa10, 12, 17, 18, Ch. glaucum12, Ch. Murale14</td>
									<td align="justify">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Chanda et al., 2021</xref>a; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Luria et al., 2017</xref>; Sabra et al., 2022; Sabra et al., 2022; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">Salem et al., 2016</xref>; Sabra et al., 2022; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">Vásquez-Gutiérrez et al., 2024</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Convolvuláceae</td>
									<td align="left"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Ipomoea purpurea4,7</td>
									<td align="left">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">Vásquez-Gutiérrez et al., 2024</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Apocynaceae</td>
									<td align="left"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Catharanthus roseus1</td>
									<td align="left">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Chanda et al., 2021</xref>a</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Malvaceae</td>
									<td align="left"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Malva parviflora21, Malva neglecta14, Malvastrum coromandelianum14</td>
									<td align="left">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">Salem et al., 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">Vásquez-Gutiérrez et al., 2024</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Nyctaginaceae</td>
									<td align="left"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Mirabilis jalapa4, 21, 7, 24</td>
									<td align="left"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Oxalidaceae</td>
									<td align="left"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Oxalis latifolia14</td>
									<td align="left"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Resedaceae</td>
									<td align="left"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Reseda luteola14</td>
									<td align="left"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Araliaceae</td>
									<td align="left"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Hedera hélix14</td>
									<td align="left"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Plantaginaceae</td>
									<td align="left">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">Vásquez-Gutiérrez et al., 2024</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Plantago lanceolata14</td>
									<td align="left"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Polygonaceae</td>
									<td align="left"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Polygonum convolvulus14</td>
									<td align="left"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Ranunculaceae</td>
									<td align="left"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Clematis drummondii4, 7. 21, 24</td>
									<td align="left"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Euphorbiaceae</td>
									<td align="left"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Ricinus comunis14</td>
									<td align="left"> </td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN1">
								<label>1</label>
								<p> asintomático; 2muerte de la planta; 3mosaico; 4mosaico, 5necrosis, 6ampulaciones, 7Distorsión de hojas, 8deformación, 9puntos</p>
							</fn>
							<fn id="TFN2">
								<p>negros locales, 11atrofia en plantas 12Lesiones locales necróticas, 13manchas necróticas, 14lesiones locales cloróticas, 15Muerte de la planta, 16formación de ampollas, 17clorosis, 18mancha anular necrótica, 19estrechamiento de hojas, 20moteado, 21amarillamiento, 22enrollamiento de hojas, 23achaparramiento, 24hoja deformada.</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>puede complicarse por expresiones mixtas de diferentes especies de tobamovirus (González et al., 2017). El efecto de la inoculación mecánica del ToBRFV en plantas experimentales, desencadena una RH en el hospedante, de tal forma que aísla las partículas virales del ToBRFV, limitando la colonización sistémica del hospedante (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Fidan et al., 2021</xref>). Diversos autores han estudiado el rango de hospedantes experimentales para ToBRFV, principalmente son especies de las familias: Chenopodiaceae, Amaranthaceae y Solanaceae, mientras que, no infecta a especies de Brassicaceae, Cucurbitaceae y Verbenaceae (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B122">Yan et al., 2021</xref>a; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Chanda et al., 2021</xref>a). Las plantas indicadoras muestran síntomas sistémicos y locales, aunque algunas como Solanum tuberosum y S. melongena permanecen asintomáticas (Yan et al., 2021b). Sin embargo, en un reciente estudio realizado por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">Vásquez-Gutiérrez et al. (2024</xref>) reportaron que Solanum tuberosum al permanecer en contacto con plantas de jitomate infectadas con ToBRFV, expresaron síntomas visuales de amarillamiento, deformación de hojas, reducción de tamaño, los cuales fueron confirmados mediante ELISA.</p>
				<p>Hospedantes alternos. ToBRFV ha demostrado ser uno de los patógenos con amplio rango de hospedantes potenciales, incluyendo cultivos y diversas malezas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Chanda 2021</xref>a; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B125">Zhang et al., 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">Matzrafi et al. (2023</xref>) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Cuadro 1</xref>). Las malezas juegan un papel importante en la diseminación del inóculo ToBRFV (Matzarafi et al., 2023), lo que subraya la importancia de una gestión integral que incluya el control de malezas para limitar la propagación del virus.</p>
				<p>Diagnóstico microscópico. Los métodos microscópicos son considerados factores importantes en el diagnóstico, pero representan una imprecisión, debido a la variabilidad en el tamaño de las partículas virales entre diferentes especies (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Luria et al., 2017</xref>). La microscopía óptica especialmente cuando se combina con técnicas de fluorescencia es una herramienta que apoya al diagnóstico de tobamovirus mediante inclusiones virales en tejidos vegetales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">Pepperkok y Ellenberg, 2006</xref>). La clasificación de virus mediante inclusiones virales se realiza por géneros, dado que la mayoría de las especies de tobamovirus, poseen la particularidad de formar inclusiones hexagonales y en forma de aguja como el tobacco mosaic virus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Khamphirapaeng et al., 2017</xref>), que a comparación del potato virus Y (especie Potyvirus yituberosi), producen cuerpo amorfos esféricos (Guo et al., 2022). Anteriormente las inclusiones del ToBRFV no habían sido descritas, recientemente en un estudio por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">Vásquez-Gutiérrez et al. (2024</xref>) reportaron la formación de cuerpos X, placas redondeadas y apiladas, como respuesta de infección al ToBRFV en tejidos de jitomate y tabaco. El microscopio electrónico de transmisión (MET), ha contribuido desde el primer avistamiento de ToBRFV por (Luria et al., 2017) para la identificación morfológica del virus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B125">Zhang et al., 2022</xref>), considerado a tal punto, como uno</p>
				<p>de los métodos clásicos para visualizar tejidos vegetales (Home et al., 2018). El diagnóstico mediante MET brinda ventajas para la caracterización de las partículas virales, basándose en la clasificación de características morfológicas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">Kitajima et al., 2004</xref>). El inconveniente de la MET es que representa una imprecisión, ya que las partículas virales no suelen ser del mismo tamaño, lo que dificulta su identificación (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Luria et al., 2017</xref>). La microscopía electrónica también puede utilizarse para detectar alteraciones celulares durante las infecciones por ToBRFV, relacionadas con las inclusiones virales. A pesar de ser un patógeno recientemente identificado, la MET resultó ser un método importante, para su caracterización viral, y la observación de partículas virales.</p>
				<p>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Luria et al. (2017</xref>); Cambrón-Crisantos et al. (2019); <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Eichmeier et al. (2023</xref>); <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Fidan et al. 2021</xref>); <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">Levitzky et al. (2019</xref>); <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">Mahillon et al. (2022</xref>) iniciaron muestreando foliolos y frutos infectados de jitomate cv. Mose e Ikram, con síntomas inusuales, posteriormente purificaron el virus desconocido de acuerdo con la descripción de Cohen et al. (2000). Con esto obtuvieron que las partículas virales mostraban un tamaño promedio de 265.6±56.2nm de largo y 19±1.41nm de diámetro, también mencionan que las partículas virales difieren de la procedencia de la muestra, pueden ser varillas cortas y alargadas.</p>
				<p>Detección serológica de ToBRFV. La detección serológica de ToBRFV emplea técnicas como el Ensayo Inmunoabsorbente Ligado a Enzimas tipo Sandwich de Doble Anticuerpo (DAS-ELISA), la inmunofluorescencia in situ y el Western blot para identificar la presencia del virus. Anteriormente estos métodos carecían de especificidad dificultando la distinción entre ToBRFV y especies relacionadas como TMV y ToMV, posiblemente debido a la reactividad cruzada entre los anticuerpos y la proteína de la cubierta (CP) de diferentes tobamovirus. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Luria et al. (2017</xref>) caracterizaron serológicamente al ToBRFV, generando anticuerpos para la detección de la PC del virus, mediante DAS-ELISA con una dilución de (1: 12,000). El análisis de la especificidad de los anticuerpos contra el virus mostró una ligera reactividad cruzada con TMV y PMMoV. En campo es inusual que haya síntomas del virus con estas concentraciones virales, por lo que el diagnóstico que se realiza proviene directamente de foliolos sintomáticos con presencia del virus, lo que aumenta la precisión de resultados con DAS-ELISA.</p>
				<p>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B122">Yan et al. (2021</xref>b) desarrollaron anticuerpos monoclonales que reconocen espe-</p>
				<p>cificamente la PC de ToBRFV sin reaccionar con TMV y ToMV, mejorando la sensibilidad y especificidad del diagnóstico. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Eads et al. (2023</xref>) validaron una técnica DAS-ELISA Agdia® con sensibilidad analítica (64 a 320 pg mL-1) y una especificidad alta para ToBRFV, sin embargo, encontraron que produce una reacción cruzada con otros tobamovirus TMV, ToMV, ToMMV, con un límite analítico de detección superior a 10 000 ng mL-1 de virus purificado. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Luria et al. (2017</xref>) implementaron el</p>
				<p>método Western blot para diagnóstico con anticuerpos policlonales específicos para ToBRFV, analizando la intensidad de las bandas de la PC a través de una prueba t-student. El principio de la prueba western blot es similar a la técnica ELISA a partir de anticuerpos policlonales para la PC del ToBRFV. La inmunofluorescencia in situ, complementada por técnicas como el uso de fluoróforos específicos para microscopía de barrido láser, permite la detección directa de ToBRFV en muestras infectadas, diferenciando entre distintos tobamovirus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Klap et al., 2020</xref>). Por otro lado, la prueba de inmunofluorescencia para microscopia de barrido láser se basa en la conjugación de los anticuerpos con Alexa Fluor 594® que es un fluoróforo brillante y estable capaz de emitir un rango rojo del espectro de color, corroborando la presencia de ToBRFV en la muestra analizada (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">Salem et al., 2022</xref>). Otra de las variantes aplicadas a la inmunofluorescencia, es la tinción de semillas, tejidos vegetales y raíces, para la hibridación in situ por fluorescencia y detección microscópica. Para esto se tiñen los tejidos con una tinción de Alexa fluor 594®, para su posterior hibridación, y observación en un microscopio (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">Ragasová et al., 2022</xref>). Estos métodos serológicos contribuyen no sólo para un diagnóstico más certero, sino, también para caracterizar el efecto fisicoquímico del ToBRFV en el hospedante infectado, ofreciendo herramientas valiosas para el manejo y control del virus.</p>
				<p>Diagnóstico con tiras reactivas. Actualmente, el interés de encontrar nuevas alternativas que permitan un diagnóstico rápido del virus bajo condiciones de campo ha cobrado relevancia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Fillmer et al.,2015</xref>; Li et al., 2019). Con la aparición del ToBRFV (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">Salem et al., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Luria et al., 2017</xref>) se empezaron a emplear ensayos inmunocromatográficos rápidos con tiras inmunológicas para las detecciones de virus de plantas, esto tomó relevancia en los últimos años, dado a su sensibilidad y diagnóstico rápido en condiciones de campo (Byzova et al., 2009). Las tiras inmunológicas Agdia® para ToBRFV, poseen especificidad para aislamientos detectados en Israel, Países Bajos, Italia, Alemania y México, que validan la detección previa durante el monitoreo en campo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">Levitzky et al., 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Eldan et al., 2022</xref>). Aun cuando el límite de detección del ToBRFV es de 200 ng mL-1, se han reportado reacciones cruzadas con virus pertenecientes al mismo género. Las tiras inmunológicas Agdia® para ToBRFV pueden reaccionar de forma cruzada con TMV, ToMV y ToMMV a bajas concentraciones del virus, por lo que la prueba debe validarse mediante ensayos moleculares (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B117">Wilstermann y Ziebell, 2019</xref>). Recientemente <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Eads et al. (2023</xref>) evaluaron el límite de dilución para detección de ToBRFV de 1: 259,000 en tejido infectado con 64-320 pg mL-1 de virus purificado; por otro lado, validaron la utilización de tiras inmunológicas Agdia® para ToBRFV, donde reportan una leve reacción cruzada con TMV y ToMV, con un límite analítico de detección de 200 ng mL-1 de virus purificado, aun así, las tiras inmunológicas no mostraron reacción cruzada con otras especies parentales a ToBRFV. Además de</p>
				<p>384 muestras positivas a ToBRFV todas resultaron ser positivas utilizando las tiras inmunológicas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figura 3</xref> A y B).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f9">
						<label>Figura 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Procedimiento de detección rápida para ToBRFV con tiras inmunológicas Agdia®.selección de tejido sintomático (hojas jóvenes); B) Macerado y reacción positiva a ToBRFV, donde se observa la línea de control y la línea de prueba (ambas en color rojo).</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24017-gf9.gif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Técnicas moleculares para la detección de ToBRFV. La detección temprana mediante diagnóstico molecular del ToBRFV representa una oportunidad para reducir el riesgo de entrada y propagación del virus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">Luigi et al., 2022</xref>) por ello, se han desarrollado diferentes protocolos que se basan en la amplificación de ácidos nucleicos los cuales incluyen: reacción en cadena de la polimerasa con transcripción reversa (RT-PCR), PCR cuantitativa con transcripción reversa (RT-qPCR), y PCR digital (ddPCR) para detección en foliolos, frutos y semillas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">Panno et al., 2019</xref>b; Rodríguez et al., 2019; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Chanda et al., 2021</xref>b; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B122">Yan et al., 2021</xref>b; Menzel y Winter, 2021). El desarrollo de estas técnicas moleculares ha cobrado relevancia para ampliar las estrategias de diagnóstico del virus en tiempo real. Debido a la variación de resultados y la eficacia de los métodos moleculares existentes, continuamente se han desarrollados nuevas técnicas que permiten la detección específica de genes en las proteínas virales del ToBRFV. Estos cebadores descritos en el <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Cuadro 2</xref>, se emplean para el diagnóstico preventivo del ToBRFV, lo cual reduce el riesgo de entrada a países con ausencia del virus.</p>
				<p>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B112">Vargas-Hernández et al. (2022</xref>) implementaron un ensayo de reacción en cadena de la polimerasa digital en gotas (ddPCR) que permite la detección del virus partiendo de plásmidos recombinantes que codifican un gen específico de la cubierta del virus. Siendo el primer reporte de detección de ToBRFV en semillas de jitomate usando ddPCR. Sin embargo, la técnica no se ha implementado masivamente para su aplicación en campo. Otro método reciente es la aplicación de AmplifyRP XRT, una técnica basada en el principio molecular, que utiliza la amplificación de la polimerasa recombinasa. Esta técnica está diseñada para ser una herramienta hibrida de detección en campo y/o laboratorio. Por tanto, se considera como una técnica altamente sensible y precisa, con una sensibilidad analítica de 16 fg µL-1 y una especificidad analítica que abarca a todos los aislamientos del ToBRFV, sin producir reacciones cruzadas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Eads et al., 2023</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t2">
						<label>Cuadro 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Cebadores reportados para la detección de ToBRFV a nivel Internacional.</title>
						</caption>
						<table>
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="left">Tejido de detección</th>
									<th align="left"> Iniciadores</th>
									<th align="left"> Secuencias de nucleótidos 5´ a 3´</th>
									<th align="left">Región blanco</th>
									<th align="left">Tamaño del amplicón</th>
									<th align="left"> Autores</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td align="left"> </td>
									<td align="left" rowspan="2">ToBRFV-F ToBRFV-R</td>
									<td align="left" rowspan="2">AACCAGAGTCTTCCTATACTCGGAA CTCWCCATCTCTTAATAATCTCCT</td>
									<td align="left"> RdRp1</td>
									<td align="left"> 475 bp</td>
									<td align="left" rowspan="2">Rodríguez et al., 2019</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center" rowspan="2">Foliolos y frutos</td>
									<td align="left"> </td>
									<td align="left"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left" rowspan="2">TBRFV-F-5722 TBRFV-R-6179</td>
									<td align="left" rowspan="2">CACAATCGCAACTCCATCGC CAGAGGACCATTGTAAACCGG</td>
									<td align="left"> </td>
									<td align="left"> </td>
									<td align="left" rowspan="2">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">Panno et al., 2019</xref>a</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left"> </td>
									<td align="center">PC1</td>
									<td align="center">458 bp</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Foliolos</td>
									<td align="left">AB5520F AB5598R</td>
									<td align="left">GTAAGGCTTGCAAAATTTCGTTCG CTTTGGTTTTTGTCTGGTTTTCGG</td>
									<td align="center">PC1</td>
									<td align="center">101 bp</td>
									<td align="left">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">Panno et al., 2019</xref>b</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Foliolos y frutos</td>
									<td align="left">ToBRFV-F-Alk ToBRFV-R-Alk</td>
									<td align="left">AATGTCCATGTTTGTTACGCC CGAATGTGATTTAAAACTGTGAAT</td>
									<td align="center">RdRp1</td>
									<td align="center">560 bp</td>
									<td align="center">Alkowni et al., 2019</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Foliolos y frutos</td>
									<td align="left">ToBRFV-F ToBRFV-R</td>
									<td align="left">GAAGTCCCGATGTCTGTAAGG GTGCCTACGGATGTGTATGA</td>
									<td align="center">PC1</td>
									<td align="center">842 bp</td>
									<td align="center">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">Ling et al., 2019</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify">Foliolos, frutos y semillas</td>
									<td align="left">ToBRFVqs1 ToBRFVp1 ToBRFVqas2</td>
									<td align="center">CAATCAGAGCACATTTGAAAGTGCA FAM-ACAATGGTCCTCTGCACCTG-BHQ1 CAGACACAATCTGTTATTTAAGCATC</td>
									<td align="left"> PC2</td>
									<td align="left"> 96 bp</td>
									<td align="left">Menzel and Winter, 2021</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Foliolos</td>
									<td align="left">CP FOR CP REV</td>
									<td align="left">AGAACAACCGTTCAACGGCAATTTA CTCAAGATGCAGGTGCAGAGGACCATTGT</td>
									<td align="center">PC4</td>
									<td align="center">359 bp</td>
									<td align="center">Magaña-Álvarez et al., 2021</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="justify">Foliolos, frutos y semillas</td>
									<td align="left">CaTa28-FW CaTa28-Pr CaTa28-Rv</td>
									<td align="center">GGTGGTGTCAGTGTCTGTTT FAM-AGAGAATGGAGAGAGCGGACGAGG -BHQ1 GCGTCCTTGGTAGTGATGTT</td>
									<td align="left"> PM3</td>
									<td align="left"> 139 bp</td>
									<td align="justify">Federación Internacional de Semillas, 2020</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left"> </td>
									<td align="center">CSP13251Fw CSP1325 Pr CSP1Rv</td>
									<td align="center">CATTTGAAAGTGCATCCGGTTT HEX-ATGGTCCTCTGCACCTGCATCTTGAGA -BHQ1 GTACCACGTGTGTTTGCAGACA</td>
									<td align="left"> PC3</td>
									<td align="left"> 100 bp</td>
									<td align="justify">Federación Internacional de Semillas, 2020</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Foliolos y semillas</td>
									<td align="left">AB-620 AB-621</td>
									<td align="left">CAGATGTGTCGTTGGTCAGAT CATCACTACGGTGTAATACTTC</td>
									<td align="left">PM1 y PM2, ORF5</td>
									<td align="center">144 bp</td>
									<td align="left">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Bernabé-Orts et al., 2022</xref>*</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Foliolos</td>
									<td align="left">ToBRFV-R1 ToBRFV-P1</td>
									<td align="left">GCCCATGGAACTATCAGAAGAA TTCCGGTCTTCGAACGAAAT</td>
									<td align="center">PM3</td>
									<td align="center">92 bp</td>
									<td align="left">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Chanda et al., 2021</xref>a*</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left" rowspan="2"> Foliolos, frutos y semillas</td>
									<td align="left">F ToBRFV_F3 ABRFV_B3</td>
									<td align="left">TTGGAGTCTTAGATGTTGCG GGACACCGTCAACTAGGA</td>
									<td align="center">PM6</td>
									<td align="center">279 bp</td>
									<td align="center">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">Sarkes et al., 2020</xref>; Rizzo et al., 2021</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">F-3666 R-4718</td>
									<td align="left">ATGGTACGAACGGCGGCAG CAATCCTTGATGTGTTTAGCAC</td>
									<td align="center">RdRp1</td>
									<td align="center">1052 bp</td>
									<td align="center">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Luria et al., 2017</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Foliolos</td>
									<td align="left">ToBRFV-1534-F ToBRFV-3733-R</td>
									<td align="left">AGATTTCCCTGGCTTTTGGA ATCATCGCCACCAAATTTTC</td>
									<td align="center">RdRp1</td>
									<td align="center">1052 bp</td>
									<td align="center">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">Yan et al., 2019</xref>
									</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left"> </td>
									<td align="left" colspan="2"> ToBRFV MP159-F1 ToBRFV MP159-R</td>
									<td align="left" colspan="3"> GAAGTTTGTTTATAGATGGCTCTTGTTAAGGGTAAA GTATCCACTATCGATGAGTTTTACACCTTTAAGTAAATTGAC GTCAATTTACTTAAAGGTGTAAAACTCATCGATAGTGGATAC </td>
									<td align="left"> PM1</td>
									<td align="left"> 15 bp</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left"> </td>
									<td align="center" colspan="2">ToBRFV MP60-126-F ToBRFV MP60-126-R </td>
									<td align="center" colspan="3">AAAGGAGTTAAGCTTATTGATGGTGGCTATGTACAT TGCGTCCTGGGTGGTGATGTTGTAATTTGGAACGACT </td>
									<td align="left"> PM1</td>
									<td align="left"> 15 bp</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left" rowspan="2"> </td>
									<td align="center" colspan="2" rowspan="2">ToBRFV MP127-186-F ToBRFV MP127-186-R </td>
									<td align="center" colspan="3">GACGGAGGTCCCATGACTACCAAGGACGCAGAAA TTCTTCTGTAAGTTCCATGGGCCCTCCATC </td>
									<td align="left"> PM1</td>
									<td align="left"> 15 bp</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left" colspan="3"> 
 </td>
									<td align="left"> </td>
									<td align="left">
										<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B122">Yan et al., 2021</xref>aA</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Foliolos</td>
									<td align="center" colspan="2">ToBRFV MP187-266FToBRFV MP187-266-R1 </td>
									<td align="center" colspan="3">GACGGAGGTCCCATGGAACTATCAGAAGAAGTTGTTGATG TTGTGTAAGATCTATTTAATACGAATCTGAATCGGC </td>
									<td align="left"> </td>
									<td align="left"> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left"> </td>
									<td align="left" colspan="2"> 
 </td>
									<td align="left" colspan="3"> 
 </td>
									<td align="center">PM1</td>
									<td align="left">15 bp</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left"> </td>
									<td align="center" colspan="2">ToBRFV-CP- detectionFToBRFV-CP- detection-R</td>
									<td align="left" colspan="3">ATGTCTTACACAATCGCAACTC TCAAGATGCAGGTGCAGAG </td>
									<td align="left"> PC1</td>
									<td align="left"> 1019 bp</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left"> </td>
									<td align="left" colspan="2">q-ToBRFV CP-Fq-ToBRFV CP-R</td>
									<td align="left" colspan="3">AAATCAGGCGAACCCG GCAGAGGACCATTGTAAACC </td>
									<td align="left"> PC1</td>
									<td align="left"> 173 bp</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left"> </td>
									<td align="center" colspan="2">q-ToBRFV RdRp-FqToBRFV RdRp-R</td>
									<td align="left"> </td>
									<td align="left">CAATACCTTGGTCAACGAT TTGGGCATACAGCAGTG</td>
									<td align="left"> </td>
									<td align="left"> RdRp1</td>
									<td align="left"> 329 bp</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN3">
								<p>Técnica: 1RT-PCR punto final; 2RT-qPCR; 3RT-qPCR multiplex, 4SEqPCR; 5CRISPR/Cas; 6LAMP; ACebadores utilizados en el estudio reportado por dicho autor; *monitoreo en tiempo real; RdRp: ARN polimerasa dependiente de ARN; PM: proteína del movimiento.</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>La detección basada en la amplificación isotérmica por bucle (LAMPe) ofrece una alternativa eficiente y sólida para el diagnóstico de ToBRFV. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">Sarkes et al. (2020</xref>) describen el principio de esta técnica que se basa en la especificidad de un conjunto de cebadores; F3: TTGCAAGTCTTAGATGCG, B3: GGACACCGTCAACTAGG con un tamaño de 279 pb. FIP(F1c+F2): CCTTCTCCAACTGTCGCAAGTCACATGCTAGGAAGTACCAC, BIP (B1c+B2) CCGTGAGTTCTGAGTCAATGGTTGAGGCTCACCACCATCTCTTAA y loopF; CTCCATGCTCAT-</p>
				<p>CATACCCAA. Los ensayos en LAMP se realizan en una máster mix colorimétrica de LAMP WarmStart (NEB Canadá). El programa de reacción consiste en un solo paso, donde los tubos se incuban a 65 °C durante 30 min, después de la incubación las reacciones se visualizan y los resultados se registran en fotografía. Los resultados positivos confirman la presencia del virus, cuando hay un cambio de color en la mezcla de reacción de rosa a amarillo. Estos resultados indican que LAMP puede detectar seis moléculas en una reacción de 25 μL siendo más específica que la RT-PCR. Por otro lado, LAMP-PCR, se ha estado utilizando en combinación con la tecnología de Repeticiones Palindrómicas Cortas Agrupadas Regularmente Interespaciadas (por sus siglas en inglés, CRISPR), para la detección específica del ToBRFV en campo (Rizzo et al., 2022). La secuenciación de próxima generación (NGS, por sus siglas en inglés), ha cobrado relevancia conforme a la aparición de nuevas tecnologías ómicas, las NGS siguen siendo dominantes en la detección de virus de plantas, debido a su alto rendimiento y bajo costo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Dumschott et al., 2020</xref>). La importancia radica en la capacidad para generar enormes datos y su rápido procesamiento (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">Mehetre et al., 2016</xref>). NGS comparte procesos que son comunes para la detección de virus de plantas, como son la extracción de ácidos nucleicos (ADN/ ARN) de muestras infectadas, la posterior fragmentación del ácido nucleico para la preparación de la biblioteca. Por último, desarrollar varios cebadores sintéticos en el ADN fragmentado; para consecutivamente desarrollar diferentes químicas de secuenciación y plataformas para el análisis de ToBRFV (Luria et al., 20017; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">Riesenfeld et al., 2004</xref>). La NGS acoplada a MiSeq Illumina conocida como tecnología de segunda generación, permite la detección de ToBRFV en concentraciones bajas en la planta, incluso en infecciones asintomáticas, a través de un análisis metagenómico (Mehetre et al., 2021). La técnica podría utilizarse para el monitoreo masivo de virus emergentes, limitando la diseminación y el impacto en cultivos de importancia económica.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Diseminación del virus</title>
				<p>El primer registro del tomato brown rugose fruit virus, fue identificado por primera vez en Israel en 2014, en plantaciones de jitomate bajo malla sombra, según <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Luria et al. (2017</xref>). A pesar de ello, no fue hasta el 2015 cuando se realizó el primer reporte de su presencia en invernaderos de jitomate en Jordania donde se observaron síntomas atípicos comparados con otros virus; en hojas, mosaicos, ampulaciones y en frutos, manchas amarillas a rugosidades color marrón (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">Salem et al., 2016</xref>). Análisis moleculares confirmaron en plantas de jitomate la presencia de un nuevo tobamovirus al que se identificó como tomato brown rugose fruit virus (Salem et al., 2016; Luria et al., 2017). La aparición y gravedad de los síntomas en frutos afectados por ToBRFV constituyeron un obstáculo significativo para su comercialización, y la ausencia de métodos diagnósticos adecuados junto con planes epidemiológicos retrasaron la implementación de medidas de control cuarentenario (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B124">Zhang et al., 2023</xref>). Tras su descubrimiento, el virus se diseminó rápidamente a nivel mundial, principalmente a través de semillas contaminadas, ya que Israel y Jordania son destacados exportadores de semillas. Esto marcó el inicio de la expansión global del virus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">Van de Vossenberg et al., 2020</xref>). Actualmente, ToBRFV está presente en cinco continentes: América, Asia, África, Europa y Oceanía, abarcando 47 países donde se ha reportado en cultivos de Solanum lycopersicum y Capsicum annum (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 4</xref>). Aunque en Oceanía no se ha confirmado oficialmente su presencia, se ha indicado que semillas provenientes de Australia estaban contaminadas con ToBRFV, sugiriendo su existencia en la región (EPPO, 2023; Zhang et al., 2022).</p>
				<p>Con la importación de semillas a México, en 2017 se evidenciaron síntomas de</p>
				<p>una enfermedad que se propagaba de forma mecánica en invernaderos de jitomate. En julio de 2018, se registró el primer caso de ToBRFV en Ensenada Baja California. Las muestras analizadas mostraron 100 % de identidad con la región de 1052 pb del gen RdRP de los aislamientos de ToBRFV identificados en Israel y Jordania, según las secuencias depositadas en el GenBank (KX619418 y KT383474.1) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Camacho-Beltrán et al., 2019</xref>). En septiembre del 2018 el virus fue también detectado en invernaderos de jitomate y chile en la región de Yurécuaro Michoacán, confirmado mediante RT-PCR con una identidad del 100 % a las cepas de Israel (Cambrón-Crisantos et al., 2019). Así mismo, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">Ling et al. (2019</xref>) en septiembre del mismo año, reportaron la presencia de ToBRFV en un invernadero con plantas de jitomate provenientes de Baja California. Esto evidencia que el virus se diseminó rápidamente a través de las áreas de producción de jitomate y pimiento en México, encontrándose actualmente en una amplia distribución a lo largo del territorio nacional, según reportes oficiales (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figura 5</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f10">
						<label>Figura 4</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Registros del ToBRFV en regiones productoras del Mundo, indicando su presencia en 47 países distribuidos en los continentes de América, Asia, África, Europa y Oceanía. Los países afectados están marcados con una flecha e iluminados de acuerdo con el primer hospedante encontrado.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24017-gf10.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f11">
						<label>Figura 5</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Registros del ToBRFV en la República Mexicana donde se detectó tomato brown rugose fruit virus. Los números 1, 2, 3, etc., representan la secuencia cronológica de las detecciones del virus, comenzando por el primer caso confirmado en México.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24017-gf11.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Epidemiología</title>
				<p>La dinámica de propagación y evolución de la enfermedad causada por el ToBRFV en cultivos de jitomate se articula a través de distintas fases epidemiológicas, reflejando una complejidad inherente al comportamiento del virus. La enfermedad policíclica ToBRFV tiene una constante producción de inóculo mediada por los procesos de replicación del virus al interior de las células del hospedante (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">Smith y Dambrovsky, 2019</xref>), así como la rápida dispersión y posterior infección de nuevos individuos (Madden et al., 2007). Las etapas de desarrollo epidemiológicas del ToBRFV se pueden describir (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 6</xref>) durante la infección y el progreso de la enfermedad en plantas de jitomate. Comienza con una fase inicial (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 6</xref>A), donde la tasa de infección es relativamente baja, lo cual se atribuye a la fase de aclimatación del patógeno a su nuevo entorno y hospedero. La fase inicial suele</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f12">
						<label>Figura 6</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Evolución de una epidemia por ToBRFV en cultivo de jitomate (Diseño hipotético). A) inicio de la infección; B) fase de crecimiento o etapa exponencial; C) punto máximo de infección; D) fase de desaceleración o fase estacionaria.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24017-gf12.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>desencadenarse por la germinación de semillas contaminadas; el hipocótilo activa la replicación del virus, que estaba en estado latente en los cotiledones. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Dombrovsky et al., 2017</xref>b). A medida que la enfermedad progresa, se observa una fase de crecimiento exponencial (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 6</xref>B), durante la cual la velocidad de transmisión y la replicación viral se intensifican drásticamente, en correlación directa con la incidencia observada. Dado a la alta capacidad de transmisión mecánica del ToBRFV y el inicio de las labores culturales en el cultivo, el virus se propaga rápidamente (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">Levitzky et al., 2019</xref>). En este período de tiempo la tasa relativa de la enfermedad aumenta de tal modo que produce un punto máximo de transmisión (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 6</xref>C), impulsado por infecciones secundarias en el conjunto de plantas evaluadas. Las prácticas de manejo del cultivo, junto a la insuficiencia de medidas de desinfección, propician un escenario donde la incidencia puede alcanzar el 100 % (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">Jeger et al., 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">Klein et al., 2023</xref>).</p>
				<p>Al culminar esta fase, la epidemia entra a una etapa de desaceleración o fase estacionaria (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 6</xref>D), señalando el momento en que la enfermedad ha infectado al máximo número posible de individuos dentro de la población de plantas. A diferencia de otros miembros del género tobamovirus, el ToBRFV es capaz de causar infecciones particularmente severas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B110">Temple et al., 2023</xref>) las cuales pueden ser fatales para la planta, especialmente bajo la presencia de infecciones mixtas con otros tobamovirus. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115">Vásquez-Gutiérrez et al., 2023</xref>b; Abou et al., 2023). Los síntomas causados por ToBRFV en jitomate son influenciados por factores bióticos y/o abióticos, como precipitaciones, humedad y temperatura los cuales juegan un papel crucial en la incidencia y severidad del virus (Nolasco et al., 2023). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">González-Concha et al. (2023</xref>) destacan que la sintomatología en plantas de jitomate cultivadas a cielo abierto difiere significativamente de aquellas cultivadas en invernadero, con altas temperaturas exacerbando tanto incidencia como la severidad del virus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">Salem et al., 2016</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">Menzel et al. (2019</xref>) reportaron la aparición de protuberancias de color verde oscuro en foliolos de jitomate baja condiciones de alta temperatura, mientras que <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">Oladokun et al. (2019</xref>) identificaron lesiones necróticas en los pedúnculos de foliolos, y necrosis en tallos. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">Panno et al. (2019</xref>a) observaron necrosis en el cáliz y peciolos de foliolos de jitomate. Aunque los tobamovirus, generalmente no actúan como parásitos necrotróficos con sus hospedantes, ToBRFV constituye una excepción notable a esta tendencia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Caruso et al., 2022</xref>). Bajo condiciones propicias, este virus tiene la capacidad de provocar el colapso de sus hospedantes, demostrando un impacto patogénico distinto y más severo en comparación con otros miembros de su género (Dombrosky y Smith, 2017).</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Estrategias de Manejo</title>
				<p>Ante la ausencia de métodos específicos para el control y manejo del ToBRFV, se han implementado diversas estrategias culturales que reducen parcialmente la diseminación del virus en el área de trabajo. Entre estas estrategias se incluye el uso de semillas libres del virus, evitar la reutilización de sustratos (García-Estrada et al., 2024), o en su defecto, se recomienda aplicar tratamientos térmicos de inactivación y desinfección para ToBRFV (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">Michael et al., 2022</xref>; Samarah et al., 2021; Ling et al., 2022), remover plantas sintomáticas después del trasplante, mantener</p>
				<p>el área de trabajo libre de malezas, que puedan actuar como reservorios del virus, y considerar la rotación de cultivos específicamente con leguminosas. Además, es crucial mantener ubicados en áreas específicas al personal de trabajo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Ehlers et al., 2022</xref>b), limpieza correcta de la ropa y zapatos de los trabajadores, junto con la desinfección de herramientas antes y después de la entrada al área de producción Ehlers et al. (2022a). Son algunas estrategias de mitigación que podrían contribuir en un buen manejo del ToBRFV.</p>
				<p>Aunque actualmente no existen productos químicos específicamente efectivos contra el ToBRFV en plantas hospedantes, se han investigado productos desinfectantes para reducir su incidencia y severidad en campo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Iobbi et al., 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">Nourinejhad-Zarghani et al., 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">Pablo et al., 2022</xref>). Por ejemplo, se ha reportado el uso de peróxido de Hidrógeno (PH) en hidrogel de alcohol polivinílico (APV)/ polivinilpirrolidona (PVP) para liberación controlada en aplicaciones de campo, la tasa de liberación del PH hidrogel a través del contacto directo e indirecto con el suelo (fase gaseosa) ha demostrado baja fitotoxicidad y una alta eficacia contra ToBRFV en plantas de jitomate y tabaco (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Eldan et al., 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">Liao et al., 2013</xref>).</p>
				<p>El uso de inductores de resistencia aplicados directamente al cultivo, para contrarrestar el daño causado por el ToBRFV es aún limitado, debido a la reciente aparición del virus. No obstante, estudios recientes han evaluado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">Ortiz-Martínez y Ochoa-Martínez, 2023</xref>) el efecto de 14 elicitores y bioestimulantes sobre parámetros agronómicos de morfología, rendimiento y calidad de los frutos en plantas de jitomate infectadas con ToBRFV. Determinaron que Virablock® 3G50, Optifert®, Silicant ® y Haifa ProtekTM mejoraron los parámetros agronómicos evaluados, mientras que Haifa ProtekTM indujo mayor sistema radicular.</p>
				<p>ToBRFV es considerado el primer tobamovirus capaz de romper la resistencia a los genes Tm-2, Tm-1 y Tm-22 que confieren resistencia a TMV, ToMV y ToMMV en solanáceas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Hak y Spiegelman, 2021</xref>). Por ello, la selección de materiales silvestres para la aplicación de mejoramiento genético con resistencia a ToBRFV, ha brindado resultados favorables en la investigación; como lo indican <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Kabas et al. (2022</xref>), quienes evaluaron materiales de jitomate que incluyen 10 especies silvestres y 11 híbridos interespecíficos F1 derivados de Solanum habrochaites y S. pennellii, estos se probaron con aislados de ToBRFV mediante el método de prueba biológica. Al final, obtuvieron que S. pimpinellifolium (LA1651), S. penellii (LA0716) y S. chilense (LA4117A, LA2747) podrían ser tolerantes a ToBRFV con un índice de severidad (ISE) menor a 19.6, 28.3, 35.0 y 35.2% respectivamente. Adicionalmente, existen reportes que indican que ToBRFV es capaz de infectar sistémicamente plantas de pimiento que portan genes L1 o L2 resistentes a ToMV (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Eldan et al., 2022</xref>), aunque en pimiento con genes L2 y L4, ToBRFV produce lesiones locales como resistencia al virus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Fidan, 2021</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">Pelletier y Moffett (2022</xref>) indicaron que Nicotiana tabacum cultivar BY-2 confirió resistencia a ToBRFV mediante el</p>
				<p>reconocimiento del fragmento viral P50 y PC, respectivamente; esto pudo haberse logrado, por la resistencia mediada por los genes N y N’ al no inducir una respuesta de hipersensibilidad (RH) en N. tabacum.</p>
				<p>Esto resalta la limitada disponibilidad de materiales genéticos, tanto silvestres y comerciales, que ofrecen resistencia a ToBRFV, un aspecto crucial para mitigar las pérdidas en cultivos de jitomate y pimiento (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Avni et al., 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">García-Estrada et al., 2022</xref>). Es importante mencionar que, aunque existen genotipos en el mercado considerados resistentes, sin embargo, no siempre contrarrestan la infección por el ToBRFV, es decir, los genotipos establecidos a temperaturas normales (20 a 28 °C) pueden tolerar al patógeno, pero a temperaturas extremas de (30 a 48 °C) pueden manifestarse como susceptibles. Por ello, es necesario tomar en cuenta la validación de la resistencia al ToBRFV, antes de su establecimiento en zonas de producción (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">González-Concha et al., 2023</xref>; Nolasco et al., 2023).</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Control legal y normatividad</title>
				<p>La problemática fitosanitaria de la presencia del ToBRFV, hizo que Estados Unidos en el 2018, a través del Departamento de Alimentos y Agricultura de California (CDFA), junto con el Departamento de Agricultura (USDA) evaluaran los riesgos que incluiría la presencia del ToBRFV, con ello establecieron restricciones a importaciones de material vegetativo, semilla de jitomate y pimiento, que permitieran la dispersión del inóculo. Pese a estas medidas, se detectó por primera vez ToBRFV en invernaderos de jitomate en el Sur de California, EE. UU (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">Ling et al., 2019</xref>).</p>
				<p>En México, tras la detección del virus el Sistema Nacional de Vigilancia Epidemiológica (SINAVEF), ejecutó medidas que clasificaron el estatus de la plaga como “Plaga transitoria accionable y en curso de erradicación (PTAyCE)”, dado que no existían reportes por las Normas Internacionales de Medidas Fitosanitarias (NIMF) (FAO, 2023) para impedir su diseminación. Estas acciones incluyeron: diagnóstico, eliminación de plantaciones con presencia del ToBRFV y destrucción de material propagativo contaminado (semillas). Sin embargo, los resultados no fueron satisfactorios, por lo cual, en ese mismo año cambió al estatus “Plaga cuarentenaria, bajo control oficial (PCCO)”. Respecto a la aparición del virus en nuestro país se ha planteado la siguiente hipótesis. El inóculo provino de un bloque de semillas importadas de Jordania a Israel (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Luria et al., 2017</xref>), lo cual se distribuyó en toda la república mexicana, detectándose por primera vez en Baja California y posteriormente en Michoacán. Desde el 2019 hasta la fecha el virus fue considerado: “Plaga no cuarentenaria reglamentada (PNCR)”, por lo cual se siguieron implementando normativas para semillas y material vegetal con el objetivo de reducir su impacto en la producción mexicana. En 2019 se emitió la primera circular dirigida</p>
				<p>a semillas, plántulas y frutos frescos de jitomates y chiles con fines de exportación</p>
				<p>y ausencia del ToBRFV (SENASICA, 2023).</p>
				<p>Por último, la Unión Europea emitió una notificación de Decisión de Ejecución (U.E.) 2019/1615, donde establecen medidas de emergencia para evitar la introducción y propagación del ToBRFV en la U.E., motivo por el cual, en el 2021, se publicó la circular No. 040, para la exportación de semillas de jitomates y chiles con destino a la U.E. Dichos lineamientos se siguen respetando hoy en día, para la importación y exportación de semillas con destinos a EE. UU., U.E. y México.</p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusiones</title>
			<p>El desconocimiento del ToBRFV posterior a la detección, produjo la dispersión rápida por todo el mundo, ya que es un patógeno que puede transmitirse en semilla y restos vegetales, lo cual le confiere mayor diseminación. Actualmente se reportan cinco clados de acuerdo con la diversidad genética existente, ToBRFV infecta a 16 familias de malezas y cultivos hospedantes distribuidos en 47 países; siendo Solanum lycopersicum el de mayor importancia económica. La resistencia genética es una alternativa que impactaría en el desarrollo de genotipos resistentes, sin embargo, en la actualidad son limitados los estudios al respecto. El estatus actual de ToBRFV en México y su presencia en zonas productoras de jitomate, revela que el problema fundamental no solo radica en la semilla contaminada, sino en las medidas fitosanitarias implementadas para la detección de enfermedades emergentes. En esta revisión se enfatiza que el análisis integral de ToBRFV, desde su diversidad genética hasta estrategias de manejo específicas. La falta de medidas correctivas para enfermedades virales podría llevar a la repetición de escenarios similares, resaltando la importancia de realizar investigaciones adicionales enfocadas en enfermedades virales emergentes, como el ToBRFV.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
		<ack>
			<title>Agradecimientos</title>
			<p> </p>
			<p>Agradecemos el apoyo a la Universidad Autónoma Agraria Antonio Narro y al Consejo Nacional de Humanidades, Ciencia y Tecnología por la beca de maestría otorgada a Ubilfrido Vásquez Gutiérrez (No. 1223150).</p>
		</ack>
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					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3389/fphys.2018.01614</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B125">
				<mixed-citation> Zhang S Griffiths JS Marchand G Bernards MA Wang A 2022 Tomato brown rugose fruit virus: An emerging and rapidly spreading plant RNA virus that threatens tomato production worldwide Molecular Plant Pathology 23 1262-1277 10.1111/mpp.13229 </mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Zhang</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Griffiths</surname>
							<given-names>JS</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Marchand</surname>
							<given-names>G</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bernards</surname>
							<given-names>MA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Wang</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2022</year>
					<article-title>Tomato brown rugose fruit virus: An emerging and rapidly spreading plant RNA virus that threatens tomato production worldwide</article-title>
					<source>Molecular Plant Pathology</source>
					<volume>23</volume>
					<fpage>1262</fpage>
					<lpage>1277</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1111/mpp.13229</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
		</ref-list>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="en">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Articles</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Tobamovirus fructirugosum an emerging disease: review and current situation in Mexico</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<abstract>
				<title>Background/Objective. Tobamovirus fructirugosum species (ToBRFV) is considered a worldwide quarantine pest that limits the production of Solanum lycopersicum and Capsicum annum, currently present in three countries of the American continent. The objective of this work was to deepen in the genetic variability of ToBRFV with respect to the different isolates, the physico-molecular and symptomatic characterization, the traditional and more current methods implemented for diagnosis, the range of virus reservoir hosts, and the epidemiology.</title>
				<p> </p>
				<sec>
					<title>Results. </title>
					<p>ToBRFV was generated from a mutation resulting from genetic recombination with TMV, considered the main progenitor and ToMMV secondary progenitor. Phylogenetic analyses report the existence of five clades with respect to the genetic diversity of ToBRFV. The first primers for detection were designed in 2015 that encode replication, movement and capsid proteins. Serological methods can be used for preventive diagnosis, while molecular and NGS can confirm virus infection even at low concentrations in the plant. Sixteen weed families and host crops are reported from 47 countries. To achieve an effective strategy, it is necessary to reduce inoculum sources, develop compounds that inhibit mechanical transmission and develop tolerant genotypes.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Conclusion. </title>
					<p>ToBRFV is distributed nationally and represents a phytosanitary risk for Mexico; the exhaustive analysis of the study of diagnostic techniques, host range, dissemination, epidemiology and control strategies, contributes to the knowledge of ToBRFV.</p>
				</sec>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Key-words:</title>
				<kwd>Diagnosis</kwd>
				<kwd>epidemiology</kwd>
				<kwd>ToBRFV</kwd>
				<kwd>virus progression</kwd>
				<kwd>genetic variability</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introduction</title>
				<p>Tobamovirus research has gained importance across agronomic and scientific fields due to the viruses’ genetic diversity, transmission mechanisms, adaptability, host range evolution, new taxonomic classifications, and virus-plant interactions (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Aiewsakun and Katzourakis, 2016</xref>). The genus Tobamovirus is believed to have emerged 140-120 million years ago, coinciding with the rise of angiosperms (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Gibbs, 1999</xref>). Initially, these viruses existed in wild plants without plant-pathogen interactions, maintaining ecological homeostasis. However, the onset of agriculture transformed them into pathogens affecting solanaceous plants and other families (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">Lartey et al., 1996</xref>).</p>
				<p>The Virgaviridae family encompasses 5 phytopathogenic virus genera, including the globally significant Tobamovirus, which comprises 37 species (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Adams et al., 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Dombrovsky et al., 2017</xref>a). Economically important tobamoviruses include: tobacco mosaic virus (TMV, Tobamovirus tabaci), tomato mosaic virus (ToMV, Tobamovirus tomatotessellati), tobacco mild green mosaic virus (TMGMV, Tobamovirus mititessellati), pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV, Tobamovirus capsici), tomato mottle mosaic virus (ToMMV, Tobamovirus maculatessellati), and tomato brown rugose fruit virus (ToBRFV, Tobamovirus fructirugosum) (EPPO, 2023). TMV, the first identified tobamovirus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Ivanovsky, 1892</xref>), caused an epidemic in Dutch tobacco-producing regions before spreading worldwide (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">Shen et al., 2013</xref>). Later discoveries include yellow tailflower mild mottle virus (YTMMV, Tobamovirus anthocercis) in Australia, affecting ornamental solanaceous species (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B118">Wylie et al., 2014</xref>), and ToMV (Skotnicki et al., 1976) and ToMMV infecting tomato and pepper plants in Mexico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Li et al., 2013</xref>). While all tobamovirus species are aggressive emerging pathogens causing significant crop losses, the tomato brown rugose fruit virus stands out for its economic impact. Notably, it is considered the first plant virus to cause a global pandemic since SARS-CoV-2 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">Salem et al., 2023</xref>).</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Origin and Genetic Diversity of ToBRFV</title>
					<p>Viral species of the genus Tobamovirus are significant pathogens in solanaceous crops, notable for the symptoms they induce and the need for specific serological methods for their identification. Nevertheless, some symptoms produced are similar among the causative species, such as TMV, ToMV, ToMMV, and ToBRFV (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Alon et al., 2021</xref>). Some studies report that TMV, ToMV, and ToBRFV can produce mixed infections in tomato plants, complicating diagnosis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Jamous et al., 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B122">Yan et al., 2021</xref>a). ToBRFV was first identified in 2014 in the Ohad province of southern Israel. Subsequently, an outbreak in tomato nurseries in Jordan led to the isolation named “Tom1-jo”, and the new virus was designated tomato brown rugose fruit virus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">Salem et al., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Luria et al., 2017</xref>). Through phylogenetic analyses including</p>
					<p>TMV, ToMV, ToMMV, and BPMV, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">Salem et al. (2016</xref>) validated ToBRFV as a new species within the genus Tobamovirus. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Luria et al. (2017</xref>), using Koch’s postulates, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), partial host range determination, and antisera analysis to rule out cross-reactivity with other viruses, concluded that the ToBRFV-IL isolate showed high identity with the Jordanian isolate.</p>
					<p>Current biogenomic studies on ToBRFV, following new outbreaks, have demonstrated genetic variability, with over 99% identity among different isolates (Chanda et al., 2020). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Eichmeier et al. (2023</xref>) found 99.3 to 100% similarity among 50 ToBRFV genomes, while <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B125">Zhang et al. (2022</xref>) clearly differentiated ToBRFV isolates from TMV and ToMV in a study of 78 genomic sequences. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B122">Yan et al. (2021</xref>b) reported over 99.6% similarity among Tom1-Jo “KT383474.1”, ToBRFV IL, and ToBRFV MX isolates, suggesting a common ancestor for all ToBRFV isolates (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">Oladokun et al., 2019</xref>). Additionally, recombination of ToBRFV with other viral species has been identified, indicating ToMMV as a secondary progenitor and the TMV Ohio V strain as the main progenitor (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">Salem et al., 2016</xref>).</p>
					<p>A phylogenetic analysis based on the ORF4/CP gene (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>) grouped</p>
					<p>34 isolates from Turkey in the first clade, while 49 isolates were placed in the</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f1">
							<label>Figure 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Phylogenetic analysis of ToBRFV sequences reported in NCBI. For the reconstruction of the phylogenetic tree, Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis version 11 software was used with the Neighbor joining model and 10,000 replicates (Bootstrap). With a genetic distance of 0.02.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24017-gf1.jpg"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>second (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Çelik et al., 2022</xref>). Two French isolates “MW284988.1, MW284987.1” were classified in the third clade, while 12 isolates from various regions including USA (MT002973.1), Mexico (TBRFV-MX-CP “MK319944.1, MW349655.1”),</p>
					<p>Netherlands “MW314116.1”, Italy “OK62464678.1”, Belgium (OM515231.1), and United Kingdom (TBRFV.21930919) formed the fifth group (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">Van de Vossenberg et al., 2020</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Abrahamian et al. (2022</xref>) revealed a phylogenetic analysis of isolates from USA, Mexico, and Peru, reporting that most of these group in clade three, evidencing limited genetic diversity among isolates worldwide. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Eichmeier et al. (2023</xref>) analyzed the complete virus genome, identifying the Czech ToBRFV isolate “OP413740.1” as belonging to an independent group within the fifth clade, distinguishing it from other European isolates. This overview underscores the complexity of ToBRFV genomics and the influence of multiple factors on its evolution and relationship with hosts.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Physical and Molecular Characteristics of ToBRFV</title>
					<p>ToBRFV has rigid rod-shaped particles 300 nm long and 18 nm in diameter. The genome is a positive-sense single-stranded RNA (ssRNA+) of ~6,400 nt. It contains four distinct open reading frames (ORF1, 2, 3, and 4), encoding two replication-related protein complexes of 126 kDa (ORF1a) and 183 kDa (ORF1b), the movement protein (MP) of ~30 kDa (ORF2), and the coat protein (CP) of ~17.5 kDa (ORF3), expressed through coterminal subgenomic RNAs (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Eichmeier et al., 2023</xref>). The 126 kDa protein can act as an RNA silencer, while the 30 kDa MP facilitates cell-to-cell virus translocation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B125">Zhang et al., 2022</xref>). It has been noted that the ToBRFV control strategy focuses on the CP, which plays a crucial role in viral particle assembly and long-distance movement within the host plant (Ishikawa et al., 2022).</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Description of Symptoms</title>
					<p>ToBRFV, a distinctive tobamovirus, induces a wide array of symptoms in its hosts. The severity and type of symptoms vary based on the host plant species, season, temperature, growth conditions (greenhouse or open field), and plant age at infection (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Caruso et al., 2022</xref>). These symptoms, both direct and indirect, significantly diminish fruit quality and commercial value, leading to substantial crop losses (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">Menzel et al., 2019</xref>). Symptom expression varies with crop type and environmental factors (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>A and C). Tomato plants exhibit systemic symptoms, while species like Nicotiana tabacum, N. glutinosa, N. clevelandii, N. benthamiana, and Chenopodium amaranticolor primarily display localized symptoms (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Chanda et al., 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">Vásquez-Gutiérrez et al., 2024</xref>). Although tobamoviruses generally</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f2">
							<label>Figure 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Symptoms manifested in tomato plants by ToBRFV grown in greenhouse. A) Tomato plants at 180 days after sowing showing high incidence of ToBRFV; B) Irregularities in fruit ripening; C) Plants in a state of collapse due to severe ToBRFV infection; D) Presence of mosaic patterns, mottling, and blistering on leaves.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24017-gf2.jpg"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>cause similar symptoms such as mosaics and yellowing, ToBRFV stands out for its particularly severe syndrome. Foliar symptoms include mosaics, blistering, curling, deformations (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>D), reduced leaf size, and stunted growth. Fruits exhibit deformation, brown spots, mottling, irregular ripening (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>B), yellow spots, and both external and internal necrosis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">González-Concha et al., 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Jewehan et al., 2022</xref>a; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115">Vásquez-Gutiérrez et al., 2023</xref>a; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B125">Zhang et al., 2022</xref>). This symptom diversity highlights the critical need for effective identification and management of ToBRFV to mitigate its impact on agricultural productivity.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Diagnostic methods</title>
					<p>Diagnostic methods begin with the identification of plant symptoms. The observation of dark mosaics, deformation and narrowing of leaves in young apical shoots, and brown rugosity on fruits confirms the presence of ToBRFV (Alfaro- Fernández et al., 2021). Currently, there are various alternatives for ToBRFV</p>
					<p>identification and detection, which can be classified into different types: differential plant diagnosis, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), serological methods, reactive strips, and molecular techniques (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">González-Garza, 2017</xref>).</p>
					<p>Diagnosis using Differential Plants. Tobamoviruses exhibit distinct symptomatic patterns that distinguish them from other genera (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">Roistacher, 1991</xref>). Initially, ToBRFV was thought to naturally infect only pepper and tomato (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Luria et al., 2017</xref>). However, recent studies have expanded our understanding of its host range. Cultrona et al. (2024) demonstrated that ToBRFV can naturally infect Convolvulus arvensis and Polycarpon tetraphyllum, which serve as reservoirs. Furthermore, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">Vásquez-Gutiérrez et al. (2024</xref>) identified and confirmed through ELISA that ToBRFV can naturally infect 21 different host species.</p>
					<p>ToBRFV’s host range encompasses over 40 species across four families: Amaranthaceae, Apocynaceae, Asteraceae, and Solanaceae (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 1</xref>). Its host range similarity to ToMV reflects their close phylogenetic relationship (Chanda et al., 2020). Differential plants enhance ToBRFV diagnosis by leveraging the hypersensitive response (HR), though mixed infections with other tobamoviruses can complicate interpretation (González et al., 2017). When mechanically inoculated, experimental plants exhibit an HR that isolates ToBRFV particles, limiting systemic spread (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Fidan et al., 2021</xref>).</p>
					<p>Experimental host range studies for ToBRFV primarily focus on species from</p>
					<p>Chenopodiaceae, Amaranthaceae, and Solanaceae families. Notably, it does not</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t3">
							<label>Table 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Hypersensitivity response in the range of hosts susceptible to ToBRFV</title>
							</caption>
							<table>
								<colgroup>
									<col/>
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th align="left">Host/Observed symptomatology</th>
										<th align="center">References</th>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<th align="left">Amaranthaceae</th>
										<th align="left"> </th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Gomphrena globosa3, 18, Amaranthus viridis14</td>
										<td align="left">
											<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">Salem et al., 2022</xref>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Asteraceae</td>
										<td align="left"> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Emilia sonchifolia9, 10, 21, Glebionis coronaria3, 20, Lactuca serriola4, Verbesina encioloides14, Bidens pilosa14, Helianthus annus14, Sonchus oleraceus14, Titonia tubaeformis14</td>
										<td align="justify">Sabra et al., 2022; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">Salem et al., 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">Matzrafi et al., 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Luria et al., 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Chanda et al., 2021</xref>a; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">Vásquez-Gutiérrez et al., 2024</xref>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Labiatae</td>
										<td align="left"> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Marrubium vulgare13, 21</td>
										<td align="left">
											<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">Vásquez-Gutiérrez et al., 2024</xref>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Solanaceae</td>
										<td align="left"> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Salanum lycopersicum3, 11, 23, S. eleagnifolium1, S. rostratum 4, 20, 21, 22, S. melongena1, S. arcanum8, 19, 20, 22, 24, S. Cheesmaniae7, 16, 19, 22, S. habrochaites3, 7, 16, S. nigrum3, 4, 12, 18, 20, S. pennellii3, 8, 22, S. peruvianum3, 8, 16, 22, S. pimpinellifolium3, 8, 16, 22, S. tuberosum1, 7, 21, S. sitiens3, Nicotiana glutinosa5, 10, N. tabacum Samsun 3, 5, 10, 20, N. occidentalis subsp. Hesperis5, 15, N. benthamiana2, 6, 5, 15, 21, 22, N. clevelandii 3, 10, 21 N. sylvestris3, 10, N. rustica2, 12, 14, 28, N. longiflora12, N. glauca14, Petunia hibrida3, Physalis angulata3, P. pubescens5, 7, Datura stramonium10, 14, Capsicum annum3, 5, 8, 13, 21</td>
										<td align="justify">
											<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">Matzrafi et al., 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">Salem et al., 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B122">Yan et al., 2021</xref>a; Sabra et al., 2022; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Jewehan et al., 2022</xref>b; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Chanda et al., 2021</xref>a; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B125">Zhang et al., 2022</xref>; Vásquez- Gutiérrez et al., 2024; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Luria et al., 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">Ortiz-Martínez et al., 2021</xref>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Chenopodiaceae</td>
										<td align="left"> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left"> Chenopodium berlandieri12, 18, Ch. amaranticolor14, Ch. album8, 12, 17 Ch. quinoa10, 12, 17, 18, Ch. glaucum12, Ch. Murale14</td>
										<td align="justify">
											<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Chanda et al., 2021</xref>a; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Luria et al., 2017</xref>; Sabra et al., 2022; Sabra et al., 2022; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">Salem et al., 2016</xref>; Sabra et al., 2022; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">Vásquez-Gutiérrez et al., 2024</xref>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Convolvuláceae</td>
										<td align="left"> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Ipomoea purpurea4,7</td>
										<td align="left">
											<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">Vásquez-Gutiérrez et al., 2024</xref>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Apocynaceae</td>
										<td align="left"> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Catharanthus roseus1</td>
										<td align="left">
											<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Chanda et al., 2021</xref>a</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Malvaceae</td>
										<td align="left"> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Malva parviflora21, Malva neglecta14, Malvastrum coromandelianum14</td>
										<td align="left">
											<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">Salem et al., 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">Vásquez-Gutiérrez et al., 2024</xref>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Nyctaginaceae</td>
										<td align="left"> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Mirabilis jalapa4, 21, 7, 24</td>
										<td align="left"> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Oxalidaceae</td>
										<td align="left"> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Oxalis latifolia14</td>
										<td align="left"> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Resedaceae</td>
										<td align="left"> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Reseda luteola14</td>
										<td align="left"> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Araliaceae</td>
										<td align="left"> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Hedera hélix14</td>
										<td align="left"> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Plantaginaceae</td>
										<td align="left">
											<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">Vásquez-Gutiérrez et al., 2024</xref>
										</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Plantago lanceolata14</td>
										<td align="left"> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Polygonaceae</td>
										<td align="left"> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Polygonum convolvulus14</td>
										<td align="left"> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Ranunculaceae</td>
										<td align="left"> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Clematis drummondii4, 7. 21, 24</td>
										<td align="left"> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Euphorbiaceae</td>
										<td align="left"> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="left">Ricinus comunis14</td>
										<td align="left"> </td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
							<table-wrap-foot>
								<fn id="TFN4">
									<p>¹asymptomatic; ²plant death; ³mosaic; ⁴mosaic, ⁵necrosis, ⁶blistering, ⁷Leaf distortion, ⁸deformation, ⁹local black spots, ¹¹plant stunting ¹²Necrotic local lesions, ¹³necrotic spots, ¹⁴chlorotic local lesions, ¹⁵Plant death, ¹⁶blister formation, ¹⁷chlorosis, ¹⁸necrotic ring spot, ¹⁹leaf narrowing, ²⁰mottling, ²¹yellowing, ²²leaf curling, ²³stunting, ²⁴leaf deformation.</p>
								</fn>
							</table-wrap-foot>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<p>infect species from Brassicaceae, Cucurbitaceae, and Verbenaceae (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B122">Yan et al., 2021</xref>a; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Chanda et al., 2021</xref>a). While most indicator plants display both systemic and local symptoms, some species like Solanum tuberosum and S. melongena were initially reported as asymptomatic (Yan et al., 2021b). However, Vásquez- Gutiérrez et al. (2024) recently observed that S. tuberosum plants in contact with ToBRFV-infected tomatoes developed visual symptoms including yellowing, leaf deformation, and size reduction, subsequently confirmed by ELISA.</p>
					<p>Alternative hosts. ToBRFV has proven to be a pathogen with a wide range of potential hosts, including crops and various weeds (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Chanda 2021</xref>a; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B125">Zhang et al., 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">Matzrafi et al. 2023</xref>) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 1</xref>). Weeds play a significant role in the spread of ToBRFV inoculum (Matzarafi et al., 2023), highlighting the importance of integrated management that includes weed control to limit virus propagation.</p>
					<p>Microscopic diagnosis. Microscopic methods are crucial for diagnosis but can be imprecise due to variability in viral particle size among species (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Luria et al., 2017</xref>). Optical microscopy, particularly when combined with fluorescence techniques, supports tobamovirus diagnosis through viral inclusions in plant tissues (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">Pepperkok and Ellenberg, 2006</xref>). Virus classification using inclusions is done by genera, as most tobamovirus species form hexagonal and needle-shaped inclusions like tobacco mosaic virus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Khamphirapaeng et al., 2017</xref>), while potato virus Y (species Potyvirus yituberosi) produces amorphous spherical bodies (Guo et al., 2022). ToBRFV inclusions were previously undescribed; recently, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">Vásquez-Gutiérrez et al. (2024</xref>) reported X-bodies, rounded and stacked plates as infection responses to ToBRFV in tomato and tobacco tissues. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) has contributed to ToBRFV’s morphological identification since its first sighting (Luria et al., 2017; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B125">Zhang et al., 2022</xref>) and is considered a classic method for visualizing plant tissues (Home et al., 2018). TEM diagnosis aids in characterizing viral particles based on morphological features (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">Kitajima et al., 2004</xref>). However, TEM can be imprecise as viral particles vary in size, complicating identification (Luria et al., 2017). Electron microscopy also detects cellular alterations during ToBRFV infections related to viral inclusions. Despite being recently identified, TEM proved valuable for ToBRFV’s viral characterization and particle observation. Luria et al. (2017), Cambrón-Crisantos et al. (2019), <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Eichmeier et al. (2023</xref>), <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Fidan et al. (2021</xref>), <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">Levitzky et al. (2019</xref>), and <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">Mahillon et al. (2022</xref>) sampled infected tomato leaflets and fruits cv. Mose and Ikram with unusual symptoms, then purified the unknown virus following Cohen et al. (2000). They found viral particles averaging 265.6±56.2nm long and 19±1.41nm in diameter, noting that</p>
					<p>particles differ based on sample origin and can be short or elongated rods.</p>
					<p>Serological detection of ToBRFV. Serological detection of ToBRFV employs techniques like Double Antibody Sandwich Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (DAS-ELISA), in situ immunofluorescence, and Western blot. Previously, these methods lacked specificity in distinguishing ToBRFV from related species like TMV and ToMV, possibly due to cross-reactivity between antibodies and coat proteins (CP) of different tobamoviruses. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Luria et al. (2017</xref>) serologically characterized ToBRFV, generating antibodies for virus CP detection using DAS- ELISA (1:12,000 dilution). Their analysis showed slight cross-reactivity with TMV</p>
					<p>and PMMoV. Field diagnosis typically uses symptomatic leaflets, increasing DAS-</p>
					<p>ELISA accuracy.</p>
					<p>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B122">Yan et al. (2021</xref>b) developed monoclonal antibodies specific to ToBRFV CP, improving diagnostic sensitivity and specificity. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Eads et al. (2023</xref>) validated an Agdia® DAS-ELISA with high analytical sensitivity (64 to 320 pg mL-1) and specificity for ToBRFV, noting cross-reactivity with TMV, ToMV, and ToMMV at higher concentrations. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Luria et al. (2017</xref>) implemented Western blot diagnosis using ToBRFV-specific polyclonal antibodies, analyzing CP band intensity via t-student test.</p>
					<p>In situ immunofluorescence, enhanced by specific fluorophores for laser scanning microscopy, enables direct ToBRFV detection in infected samples, differentiating between tobamoviruses (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Klap et al., 2020</xref>). This technique often uses Alexa Fluor 594®, a bright, stable red-spectrum fluorophore (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">Salem et al., 2022</xref>). Another variant involves staining seeds, plant tissues, and roots for fluorescence in situ hybridization and microscopic detection (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">Ragasová et al., 2022</xref>).</p>
					<p>These serological methods contribute to accurate diagnosis and characterization of ToBRFV’s physicochemical effects on infected hosts, offering valuable tools for virus management and control.</p>
					<p>Diagnosis with test strips. The quest for rapid virus diagnosis in field conditions has gained importance (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Fillmer et al., 2015</xref>; Li et al., 2019). Following ToBRFV’s emergence (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">Salem et al., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Luria et al., 2017</xref>), rapid immunochromatographic assays using test strips for plant virus detection have become significant due to their sensitivity and field applicability (Byzova et al., 2009). Agdia® test strips for ToBRFV specifically detect isolates from Israel, the Netherlands, Italy, Germany, and Mexico, validating field monitoring results (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">Levitzky et al., 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Eldan et al., 2022</xref>). Despite a ToBRFV detection limit of 200 ng mL-1, cross-reactions with related viruses occur. These strips may cross-react with TMV, ToMV, and ToMMV at low concentrations, necessitating validation through molecular assays (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B117">Wilstermann and Ziebell, 2019</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Eads et al. (2023</xref>) recently determined a 1:259,000 dilution limit for ToBRFV detection in infected tissue with 64-320 pg mL-1 of purified virus. Their validation of Agdia® strips revealed slight cross-reactivity with TMV and ToMV at a 200 ng mL-1 detection limit for purified virus. However, the strips showed no cross-reaction with other ToBRFV-related species. Notably, all 384 ToBRFV-positive samples tested positive using these strips (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref> A and B).</p>
					<p>Molecular techniques for ToBRFV detection. Early detection through molecular diagnosis of ToBRFV presents an opportunity to reduce the risk of virus entry and spread (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">Luigi et al., 2022</xref>). Consequently, various protocols based on nucleic acid amplification have been developed, including: reverse transcription polymerase</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f3">
							<label>Figure 3</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Rapid detection procedure for ToBRFV using Agdia® immunological strips. A) Selection of symptomatic tissue (young leaves); B) Macerated sample and positive reaction to ToBRFV, showing the control line and the test line (both in red color).</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24017-gf3.gif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>chain reaction (RT-PCR), quantitative reverse transcription PCR (RT-qPCR), and digital PCR (ddPCR) for detection in leaflets, fruits, and seeds (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">Panno et al., 2019</xref>b; Rodríguez et al., 2019; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Chanda et al., 2021</xref>b; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B122">Yan et al., 2021</xref>b; Menzel &amp; Winter, 2021). The development of these molecular techniques has gained relevance in expanding real-time virus diagnostic strategies. Due to result variation and the efficacy of existing molecular methods, new techniques have been continuously developed to allow specific detection of genes in ToBRFV viral proteins. These primers, described in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 2</xref>, are used for preventive diagnosis of ToBRFV, reducing the risk of entry into countries where the virus is absent.</p>
					<p>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B112">Vargas-Hernández et al. (2022</xref>) implemented a digital droplet polymerase chain reaction (ddPCR) assay that enables the detection of the virus using recombinant plasmids encoding a specific gene of the virus coat. This is the first report of ToBRFV detection in tomato seeds using ddPCR. However, the technique has not been widely implemented for field application. Another recent method is the application of AmplifyRP XRT, a technique based on the molecular principle, which utilizes recombinase polymerase amplification. This technique is designed to be a hybrid tool for field and/or laboratory detection. Therefore, it is considered a highly sensitive and precise technique, with an analytical sensitivity of 16 fg µL-1 and an analytical specificity that encompasses all ToBRFV isolates, without producing cross-reactions (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Eads et al., 2023</xref>). Detection based on loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) offers an efficient and robust alternative for ToBRFV</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t4">
							<label>Table 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Primers Reported for the International Detection of ToBRFV.</title>
							</caption>
							<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center; font-style:italic">Tejido de detección</th>
										<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center; font-style:italic">Iniciadores</th>
										<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center; font-style:italic">Secuencias de nucleótidos 5´ a 3´</th>
										<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center; font-style:italic">Región blanco</th>
										<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center; font-style:italic">Tamaño del amplicón</th>
										<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center; font-style:italic">Autores</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td> </td>
										<td rowspan="2">ToBRFV-F ToBRFV-R</td>
										<td rowspan="2">AACCAGAGTCTTCCTATACTCGGAA CTCWCCATCTCTTAATAATCTCCT</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">RdRp1</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">475 bp</td>
										<td rowspan="2">Rodríguez et al., 2019</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td rowspan="2" style="text-align:center">Foliolos y frutos</td>
										<td> </td>
										<td> </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td rowspan="2">TBRFV-F-5722 TBRFV-R-6179</td>
										<td rowspan="2">CACAATCGCAACTCCATCGC CAGAGGACCATTGTAAACCGG</td>
										<td> </td>
										<td> </td>
										<td rowspan="2">Panno et al., 2019a</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td> </td>
										<td style="text-align:center">PC1</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">458 bp</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="text-align:center">Foliolos</td>
										<td>AB5520F AB5598R</td>
										<td>GTAAGGCTTGCAAAATTTCGTTCG CTTTGGTTTTTGTCTGGTTTTCGG</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">PC1</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">101 bp</td>
										<td>Panno et al., 2019b</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Foliolos y frutos</td>
										<td>ToBRFV-F-Alk ToBRFV-R-Alk</td>
										<td>AATGTCCATGTTTGTTACGCC CGAATGTGATTTAAAACTGTGAAT</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">RdRp1</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">560 bp</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">Alkowni et al., 2019</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Foliolos y frutos</td>
										<td>ToBRFV-F ToBRFV-R</td>
										<td>GAAGTCCCGATGTCTGTAAGG GTGCCTACGGATGTGTATGA</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">PC1</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">842 bp</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">Ling et al., 2019</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Foliolos, frutos y semillas</td>
										<td>ToBRFVqs1 ToBRFVp1 ToBRFVqas2</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">CAATCAGAGCACATTTGAAAGTGCA FAM-ACAATGGTCCTCTGCACCTG-BHQ1 CAGACACAATCTGTTATTTAAGCATC</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">PC2</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">96 bp</td>
										<td>Menzel and Winter, 2021</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="text-align:center">Foliolos</td>
										<td>CP FOR CP REV</td>
										<td>AGAACAACCGTTCAACGGCAATTTA CTCAAGATGCAGGTGCAGAGGACCATTGT</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">PC4</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">359 bp</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">Magaña-Álvarez et al., 2021</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Foliolos, frutos y semillas</td>
										<td>CaTa28-FW CaTa28-Pr CaTa28-Rv</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">GGTGGTGTCAGTGTCTGTTT FAM-AGAGAATGGAGAGAGCGGACGAGG -BHQ1 GCGTCCTTGGTAGTGATGTT</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">PM3</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">139 bp</td>
										<td>Federación In- ternacional de Semillas, 2020</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td> </td>
										<td style="text-align:center">CSP13251Fw CSP1325 Pr CSP1Rv</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">CATTTGAAAGTGCATCCGGTTT HEX-ATGGTCCTCTGCACCTGCATCTTGAGA -BHQ1 GTACCACGTGTGTTTGCAGACA</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">PC3</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">100 bp</td>
										<td>Federación In- ternacional de Semillas, 2020</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Foliolos y semillas</td>
										<td>AB-620 AB-621</td>
										<td>CAGATGTGTCGTTGGTCAGAT CATCACTACGGTGTAATACTTC</td>
										<td>PM1 y PM2, ORF5</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">144 bp</td>
										<td>Bernabé-Orts et al., 2022*</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="text-align:center">Foliolos</td>
										<td>ToBRFV-R1 ToBRFV-P1</td>
										<td>GCCCATGGAACTATCAGAAGAA TTCCGGTCTTCGAACGAAAT</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">PM3</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">92 bp</td>
										<td>Chanda et al., 2021a*</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td rowspan="2"> Foliolos, frutos y semillas</td>
										<td>F ToBRFV_F3 ABRFV_B3</td>
										<td>TTGGAGTCTTAGATGTTGCG GGACACCGTCAACTAGGA</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">PM6</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">279 bp</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">Sarkes et al., 2020; Rizzo et al., 2021</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>F-3666 R-4718</td>
										<td>ATGGTACGAACGGCGGCAG CAATCCTTGATGTGTTTAGCAC</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">RdRp1</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">1052 bp</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">Luria et al., 2017</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="text-align:center">Foliolos</td>
										<td>ToBRFV-1534-F ToBRFV-3733-R</td>
										<td>AGATTTCCCTGGCTTTTGGA ATCATCGCCACCAAATTTTC</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">RdRp1</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">1052 bp</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">Yan et al., 2019</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td> </td>
										<td style="text-align:center">ToBRFV MP1- 59-F1 ToBRFV MP1- 59-R</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">GAAGTTTGTTTATAGATGGCTCTTGTTA- AGGGTAAA GTATCCACTATCGATGAGTTTTACACCTT- TAAGTAAATTGAC GTCAATTTACTTAAAGGTGTAAAACT- CATCGATAGTGGATAC</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">PM1</td>
										<td> 15 bp</td>
										<td rowspan="7">Yan et al., 2021aA</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td> </td>
										<td style="text-align:center">ToBRFV MP60-126-F ToBRFV MP60-126-R</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">AAAGGAGTTAAGCTTATTGATGGTGGC- TATGTACAT TGCGTCCTGGGTGGTGATGTTGTAATTTG- GAACGACT</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">PM1</td>
										<td> 15 bp</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td> </td>
										<td style="text-align:center">ToBRFV MP127-186-F ToBRFV MP127-186-R</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">GACGGAGGTCCCATGACTACCAAGGACG- CAGAAA TTCTTCTGTAAGTTCCATGGGCCCTCCATC</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">PM1</td>
										<td> 15 bp</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Foliolos</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">ToBRFV MP187-266- FToBRFV MP187-266-R1</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">GACGGAGGTCCCATGGAACTAT- CAGAAGAAGTTGTTGATG TTGTGTAAGATCTATTTAATACGAATCT- GAATCGGC</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">PM1</td>
										<td>15 bp</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td> </td>
										<td style="text-align:center">ToBRFV-CP- detection- FToBRFV-CP- detection-R</td>
										<td>ATGTCTTACACAATCGCAACTC TCAAGATGCAGGTGCAGAG</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">PC1</td>
										<td> 1019 bp</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td> </td>
										<td>q-ToBRFV CP-Fq-ToBRFV CP-R</td>
										<td>AAATCAGGCGAACCCG GCAGAGGACCATTGTAAACC</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">PC1</td>
										<td> 173 bp</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td> </td>
										<td style="text-align:center">q-ToBRFV RdRp-Fq- ToBRFV RdRp-R</td>
										<td> CAATACCTTGGTCAACGAT TTGGGCATACAGCAGTG</td>
										<td style="text-align:center">RdRp1</td>
										<td> 329 bp</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
							<table-wrap-foot>
								<fn id="TFN64">
									<p>Technique: ¹RT-PCR endpoint; ²RT-qPCR; ³RT-qPCR multiplex, ⁴SEqPCR; ⁵CRISPR/Cas; ⁶LAMP; ᴬPrimers used in the study</p>
								</fn>
								<fn id="TFN65">
									<p>reported by the corresponding author; *real-time monitoring; RdRp: RNA-dependent RNA polymerase; MP: movement protein.</p>
								</fn>
							</table-wrap-foot>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<p>diagnosis. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">Sarkes et al. (2020</xref>) describe the principle of this technique, which is based on the specificity of a set of primers; F3: TTGCAAGTCTTAGATGCG, B3: GGACACCGTCAACTAGG with a size of 279 bp. FIP(F1c+F2): CCTTCTCCAACTGTCGCAAGTCACATGCTAGGAAGTACCAC, BIP (B1c+B2) CCGTGAGTTCTGAGTCAATGGTTGAGGCTCACCACCATCTC</p>
					<p>TTAA and loopF; CTCCATGCTCATCATACCCAA. LAMP assays are performed</p>
					<p>in a WarmStart LAMP colorimetric master mix (NEB Canada). The reaction program consists of a single step, where tubes are incubated at 65°C for 30 min, after which the reactions are visualized and the results are recorded photographically. Positive results confirm the presence of the virus when there is a color change in the reaction mixture from pink to yellow. These results indicate that LAMP can detect six molecules in a 25 μL reaction, being more specific than RT-PCR. On the other hand, LAMP-PCR has been used in combination with Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) technology for the specific detection of ToBRFV in the field (Rizzo et al., 2022).</p>
					<p>Next-generation sequencing (NGS) has gained relevance with the emergence of new omic technologies. NGS remains dominant in plant virus detection due to its high throughput and low cost (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Dumschott et al., 2020</xref>). The importance lies in the ability to generate enormous data and its rapid processing (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">Mehetre et al., 2016</xref>). NGS shares processes that are common for plant virus detection, such as the extraction of nucleic acids (DNA/RNA) from infected samples, the subsequent fragmentation of the nucleic acid for library preparation, and finally, the development of several synthetic primers in the fragmented DNA for the consecutive development of different sequencing chemistries and platforms for ToBRFV analysis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Luria et al., 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">Riesenfeld et al., 2004</xref>). NGS coupled with MiSeq Illumina, known as second-generation technology, allows the detection of ToBRFV at low concentrations in the plant, even in asymptomatic infections, through metagenomic analysis (Mehetre et al., 2021). The technique could be used for the mass monitoring of emerging viruses, limiting their spread and impact on economically important crops.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Spread of the virus</title>
					<p>The tomato brown rugose fruit virus was first identified in Israel in 2014 in tomato plantations under shade mesh, according to <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Luria et al. (2017</xref>). However, it was not until 2015 that the first report of its presence in tomato greenhouses in Jordan was made, where atypical symptoms were observed compared with other viruses; on leaves, mosaics, blistering, and on fruits, yellow spots to brown rugosity (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">Salem et al., 2016</xref>). Molecular analyses confirmed the presence of a new tobamovirus in tomato plants, which was identified as tomato brown rugose fruit virus (Salem et al., 2016; Luria et al., 2017)*. The appearance and severity of symptoms in fruits affected by ToBRFV constituted a significant obstacle to their commercialization, and the absence of adequate diagnostic methods along with epidemiological plans delayed the implementation of quarantine control measures (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B124">Zhang et al., 2023</xref>). After its discovery, the virus spread rapidly worldwide, mainly through contaminated seeds, as Israel and Jordan are prominent seed exporters.</p>
					<p>This marked the beginning of the global expansion of the virus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">Van de Vossenberg et al., 2020</xref>). Currently, ToBRFV is present on five continents: America, Asia, Africa, Europe, and Oceania, covering 47 countries where it has been reported in *Solanum lycopersicum *and Capsicum annum crops (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref>). Although its presence has not been officially confirmed in Oceania, it has been indicated that seeds from Australia were contaminated with ToBRFV, suggesting its existence in the region (EPPO, 2023; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B125">Zhang et al., 2022</xref>).</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f4">
							<label>Figure 4</label>
							<caption>
								<title>ToBRFV records in producing regions of the World, indicating its presence in 47 countries distributed across the continents of America, Asia, Africa, Europe, and Oceania. Affected countries are marked with an arrow and highlighted according to the first host found.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24017-gf4.jpg"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>With the importation of seeds to Mexico, in 2017, symptoms of a disease that spread mechanically in tomato greenhouses were evidenced. In July 2018, the first case of ToBRFV was registered in Ensenada, Baja California. The analyzed samples showed 100% identity with the 1052 bp region of the RdRP gene of the ToBRFV isolates identified in Israel and Jordan, according to the sequences deposited in GenBank (KX619418 and KT383474.1) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Camacho-Beltrán et al., 2019</xref>). In September 2018, the virus was also detected in tomato and chili pepper greenhouses in the Yurécuaro region of Michoacán, confirmed by RT-PCR with a 100% identity to the Israeli strains (Cambrón-Crisantos et al., 2019). Likewise, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">Ling et al. (2019</xref>) in September of the same year, reported the presence of ToBRFV in a greenhouse with tomato plants from Baja California. This evidence shows that the virus spread rapidly through the tomato and pepper production areas in Mexico,</p>
					<p>currently being widely distributed throughout the national territory, according to</p>
					<p>official reports (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 5</xref>).</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f5">
							<label>Figure 5</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Records of ToBRFV in the Mexican Republic where tomato brown rugose fruit virus was detected. The numbers 1, 2, 3, etc., represent the chronological sequence of virus detections, starting with the first confirmed case in Mexico.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24017-gf5.jpg"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Epidemiology</title>
					<p>The dynamics of the spread and evolution of the disease caused by ToBRFV in tomato crops are articulated through different epidemiological phases, reflecting an inherent complexity in the behavior of the virus. The polycyclic ToBRFV disease has a constant production of inoculum mediated by the processes of virus replication within the host cells (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">Smith and Dambrovsky, 2019</xref>), as well as the rapid dispersal and subsequent infection of new individuals (Madden et al., 2007). The epidemiological development stages of ToBRFV can be described (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 6</xref>) during infection and disease progression in tomato plants. It begins with an initial phase (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 6</xref>A), where the infection rate is relatively low, which is attributed to the pathogen’s acclimatization phase to its new environment and host. The initial phase is usually triggered by the germination of contaminated seeds; the</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f6">
							<label>Figure 6</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Evolution of a ToBRFV epidemic in tomato crops (Hypothetical design). A) Start of infection; B) Growth phase or exponential stage; C) Peak infection point; D) Deceleration phase or stationary phase.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24017-gf6.gif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>hypocotyl activates the replication of the virus, which was in a latent state in the cotyledons (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Dombrovsky <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>b). As the disease progresses, an exponential growth phase is observed (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 6</xref>B), during which the transmission speed and viral replication intensify drastically, in direct correlation with the observed incidence. Given the high mechanical transmission capacity of ToBRFV and the start of cultural practices in the crop, the virus spreads rapidly (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">Levitzky <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). During this period, the relative rate of the disease increases in such a way that it produces a maximum transmission point (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 6</xref>C), driven by secondary infections in the set of evaluated plants. Crop management practices, together with insufficient disinfection measures, create a scenario where the incidence can reach 100% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">Jeger <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">Klein <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). At the end of this phase, the epidemic enters a deceleration or stationary phase (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 6</xref>D), indicating the moment when the disease has infected the maximum possible number of individuals within the plant population. Unlike other members of the <italic>Tobamovirus</italic> genus, ToBRFV is capable of causing particularly severe infections (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B110">Temple <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>), which can be fatal to the plant, especially in the presence of mixed infections with other tobamoviruses. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115">Vásquez-Gutiérrez <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>b; Abou <italic>et al</italic>., 2023).</p>
					<p>The symptoms caused by ToBRFV in tomato are influenced by biotic and/</p>
					<p>or abiotic factors, such as precipitation, humidity, and temperature, which play a crucial role in the incidence and severity of the virus (Nolasco <italic>et al</italic>., 2023). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">González-Concha <italic>et al</italic>. (2023</xref>) highlight that the symptomatology in tomato</p>
					<p>plants grown in open fields differs significantly from those grown in greenhouses, with high temperatures exacerbating both the incidence and severity of the virus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">Salem <italic>et al.,</italic> 2016</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">Menzel <italic>et al</italic>. (2019</xref>) reported the appearance of dark green protuberances on tomato leaflets under high temperature conditions, while <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">Oladokun <italic>et al</italic>. (2019</xref>) identified necrotic lesions on leaflet peduncles and stem necrosis. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">Panno <italic>et al</italic>. (2019</xref>a) observed calyx and leaflet petiole necrosis in tomato. Although tobamoviruses generally do not act as necrotrophic parasites with their hosts, ToBRFV constitutes a notable exception to this trend (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Caruso <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>). Under favorable conditions, this virus has the ability to cause the collapse of its hosts, demonstrating a distinct and more severe pathogenic impact compared to other members of its genus (Dombrosky and Smith, 2017).</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Management strategies</title>
					<p>In the absence of specific methods for the control and management of ToBRFV, various cultural strategies have been implemented that partially reduce the spread of the virus in the work area. These strategies include the use of virus-free seeds, avoiding the reuse of substrates (García-Estrada <italic>et al</italic>., 2024), or, failing that, applying thermal inactivation and disinfection treatments for ToBRFV (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">Michael <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>; Samarah <italic>et al</italic>., 2021; Ling <italic>et al</italic>., 2022), removing symptomatic plants after transplanting, keeping the work area free of weeds that can act as virus reservoirs, and considering crop rotation specifically with legumes. In addition, it is crucial to keep workers located in specific areas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Ehlers <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>b), properly clean workers’ clothing and shoes, and disinfect tools before and after entering the production area (Ehlers <italic>et al</italic>., 2022a). These are some mitigation strategies that could contribute to good management of ToBRFV. Although there are currently no chemical products specifically effective against ToBRFV in host plants, disinfectant products have been investigated to reduce its incidence and severity in the field (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Iobbi <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">Nourinejhad-Zarghani <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">Pablo <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>). For example, the use of hydrogen peroxide (HP) in polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)/polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) hydrogel for controlled release in field applications has been reported. The release rate of HP hydrogel through direct and indirect contact with soil (gas phase) has shown low phytotoxicity and high efficacy against ToBRFV in tomato and tobacco plants (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Eldan <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">Liao <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>). The use of resistance inducers applied directly to the crop to counteract the damage caused by ToBRFV is still limited due to the recent emergence of the virus. However, recent studies have evaluated (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">Ortiz-Martínez and Ochoa-Martínez, 2023</xref>) the effect of 14 elicitors and biostimulants on agronomic parameters of morphology, yield, and fruit quality in tomato plants infected with ToBRFV. They determined that Virablock® 3G50, Optifert®, Silicant®, and Haifa ProtekTM improved the evaluated agronomic</p>
					<p>parameters, while Haifa ProtekTM induced a larger root system. ToBRFV is considered the first tobamovirus capable of breaking the resistance to the <italic>Tm-2</italic>, <italic>Tm-1</italic>, and <italic>Tm-22</italic> genes that confer resistance to TMV, ToMV, and ToMMV in solanaceous plants (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Hak and Spiegelman, 2021</xref>). Therefore, the selection of wild materials for the application of genetic improvement with resistance to ToBRFV has provided favorable results in research, as indicated by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Kabas <italic>et al</italic>. (2022</xref>), who evaluated tomato materials including 10 wild species and 11 interspecific F1 hybrids derived from <italic>Solanum habrochaites</italic> and <italic>S. pennellii</italic>. These were tested with ToBRFV isolates using the biological test method. In the end, they found that</p>
					<p><italic>S. pimpinellifolium</italic> (LA1651), <italic>S. penellii</italic> (LA0716), and <italic>S. chilense</italic> (LA4117A, LA2747) could be tolerant to ToBRFV with a severity index (SI) lower than 19.6, 28.3, 35.0, and 35.2%, respectively. Additionally, there are reports indicating that ToBRFV is capable of systemically infecting pepper plants carrying <italic>L1</italic> or <italic>L2</italic> genes resistant to ToMV (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Eldan <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>), although in pepper with <italic>L2</italic> and <italic>L4</italic> genes, ToBRFV produces local lesions as resistance to the virus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Fidan, 2021</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">Pelletier and Moffett (2022</xref>) indicated that <italic>Nicotiana tabacum</italic> cultivar BY-2 conferred resistance to ToBRFV through the recognition of the viral P50 and CP fragments, respectively; this could have been achieved by the resistance mediated by the <italic>N</italic> and <italic>N</italic>’ genes by not inducing a hypersensitivity response (HR) in <italic>N. tabacum</italic>. This highlights the limited availability of genetic materials, both wild and commercial, that offer resistance to ToBRFV, a crucial aspect for mitigating losses in tomato and pepper crops (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Avni <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">García-Estrada <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>). It is important to mention that, although there are genotypes in the market considered resistant, they do not always counteract the infection by ToBRFV. In other words, genotypes established at normal temperatures (20 to 28 °C) may tolerate the pathogen, but at extreme temperatures (30 to 48 °C), they may manifest as susceptible. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the validation of resistance to ToBRFV before its establishment in production zones (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">González-Concha <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>; Nolasco <italic>et al</italic>., 2023).</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Legal control and regulations</title>
					<p>The phytosanitary problem of the presence of ToBRFV prompted the United States in 2018, through the California Department of Food and Agriculture (CDFA) and the Department of Agriculture (USDA), to assess the risks that the presence of ToBRFV would entail. With this, they established restrictions on imports of vegetative material and tomato and pepper seeds that could allow the dispersal of the inoculum. Despite these measures, ToBRFV was detected for the first time in tomato greenhouses in Southern California, USA (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">Ling <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). In Mexico, after the detection of the virus, the National Epidemiological Surveillance System</p>
					<p>(SINAVEF) implemented measures that classified the pest status as “Actionable and eradicable transient pest (AETP),” given that there were no reports by the International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPMs) (FAO, 2023) to prevent its spread. These actions included: diagnosis, elimination of plantations with the presence of ToBRFV, and destruction of contaminated propagative material (seeds). However, the results were not satisfactory, so in that same year, the status changed to “Quarantine pest, under official control (QPOC).” Regarding the appearance of the virus in our country, the following hypothesis has been proposed: The inoculum came from a block of seeds imported from Jordan to Israel (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Luria <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>), which was distributed throughout the Mexican republic, being detected for the first time in Baja California and later in Michoacán. From 2019 to date, the virus has been considered a “Regulated non-quarantine pest (RNQP),” so regulations for seeds and plant material have continued to be implemented to reduce its impact on Mexican production. In 2019, the first circular was issued aimed at seeds, seedlings, and fresh fruits of tomatoes and peppers for export purposes and the absence of ToBRFV (SENASICA, 2023). Finally, the European Union issued an Implementing Decision notification (EU) 2019/1615, which establishes emergency measures to prevent the introduction and spread of ToBRFV in the EU. For this reason, in 2021, Circular No. 040 was published for the export of tomato and pepper seeds destined for the EU. These guidelines continue to be respected today for the import and export of seeds to the USA, EU, and Mexico.</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusions</title>
				<p>The lack of knowledge about ToBRFV following its detection resulted in rapid spread worldwide, as it is a pathogen that can be transmitted through seeds and plant debris, facilitating greater dissemination. Currently, five clades are reported based on the existing genetic diversity. ToBRFV infects 16 families of weeds and host crops distributed across 47 countries, with <italic>Solanum lycopersicum</italic> being the most economically significant. Genetic resistance is a promising alternative for developing resistant genotypes; however, studies in this area are currently limited. The current status of ToBRFV in Mexico and its presence in tomato-producing regions reveals that the fundamental problem lies not only in contaminated seeds but also in the phytosanitary measures implemented for detecting emerging diseases. This review emphasizes the need for a comprehensive analysis of ToBRFV, from its genetic diversity to specific management strategies. The absence of corrective measures for viral diseases could lead to the recurrence of similar scenarios, underscoring the importance of conducting further research focused on emerging viral diseases, such as ToBRFV.</p>
			</sec>
		</body>
		<back>
			<ack>
				<title>Acknowledgments</title>
				<p> </p>
				<p>Agradecemos el apoyo a la Universidad Autónoma Agraria Antonio Narro y al Consejo Nacional de Humanidades, Ciencia y Tecnología por la beca de maestría otorgada a Ubilfrido Vásquez Gutiérrez (No. 1223150).</p>
			</ack>
		</back>
	</sub-article>
</article>