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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">rmfi</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Revista mexicana de fitopatología</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Rev. mex. fitopatol</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">0185-3309</issn>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2007-8080</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedad Mexicana de Fitopatología A.C.</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.18781/R.MEX.FIT.2404-4</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="other">00002</article-id> 
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artículos Científicos</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Efecto antifúngico del aceite esencial de clavo y sus componentes principales sobre hongos aislados de tortillas de maíz</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Ibarra-Valenzuela</surname>
						<given-names>Ana Patricia</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Troncoso-Rojas</surname>
						<given-names>Rosalba</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Islas-Rubio</surname>
						<given-names>Alma Rosa</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Peralta</surname>
						<given-names>Elizabeth</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Soto-Valdez*</surname>
						<given-names>Herlinda</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Samsudin</surname>
						<given-names>Hayati</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Coordinación de Tecnología de Alimentos de Origen Vegetal, Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A.C. Carretera Gustavo Enrique Astiazarán Rosas, No. 46. Col. La Victoria, CP. 83304, Hermosillo, Sonora, México; </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A.C</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A.C</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<postal-code>83304</postal-code>
					<city>Hermosillo</city>
					<state>Sonora</state>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Food Technology Division, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia 11800 USM, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia.</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universiti Sains Malaysia</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universiti Sains Malaysia</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<state>Pulau Pinang</state>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MY">Malaysia</country>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1"><bold>
 <italic>*Autor de correspondencia</italic>:</bold> Herlinda Soto-Valdez <email>hsoto@ciad.mx</email>
				</corresp>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>18</day>
				<month>03</month>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<month>04</month>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>43</volume>
			<issue>1</issue>
			<elocation-id>RMEXFIT24044</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>09</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>16</day>
					<month>12</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
					<license-p>Este es un artículo publicado en acceso abierto bajo una licencia Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>RESUMEN</title>
				<p> </p>
				<sec>
					<title>Antecedentes/Objetivo. </title>
					<p>Las tortillas de maíz, alimento básico en México, presen- tan una vida útil de 1-2 días a 25 °C debido al crecimiento fúngico. Una alternativa para extender la vida de anaquel de las tortillas es adicionar aceite esencial de clavo (AEC), sus componentes mayoritarios: eugenol (E), isoeugenol (I) y acetato de eugenilo (AE). El objetivo fue evaluar el efecto antifúngico del AEC sobre hongos identificados en tortillas de maíz.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Materiales y Métodos. </title>
					<p>Se adquirieron muestras de un kg de tortillas de maíz de las capitales de cinco estados del país (Sonora, Nuevo León, Michoacán, Oaxaca y Yucatán). Los hongos se identificaron por su morfología y por biología molecular. Además, se les determinó la concentración mínima inhibitoria (CMI) frente a AEC. El efecto de E, I y AE sobre <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> (previamente identificado) se evaluó con el modelo de Gompertz.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Resultados. </title>
					<p>Se obtuvieron dos aislados fúngicos de las tortillas de Nuevo León, Sonora, Yucatán y Michoacán y un aislado de Oaxaca, mismos que se identificaron por biología molecular: <italic>Aspergillus longivesica</italic> y <italic>Curvularia spicifera</italic> de Nuevo León; <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> y <italic>Penicillium brevicompactum</italic> de Sonora; <italic>Aspergillus</italic> sp<italic>.</italic> de Oaxaca; <italic>Mucor</italic> sp. y <italic>Aspergillus flavus</italic> de Yucatán; <italic>Penicillium herquei,</italic> y <italic>Cur- vularia racemosus</italic> de Michoacán<italic>.</italic> Las CMIs fueron 200, 400, 800, 400, 800, 400, 800, 800 y 400 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>, respectivamente. AEC, E e I a 800 µg mL<sup>-1</sup> retardaron la fase exponencial de crecimiento de <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic>, mientras que AE no mostró efecto.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Conclusión. </title>
					<p>El AEC podría ser una alternativa natural para prolongar la vida útil de tortillas de maíz.</p>
				</sec>
			</abstract>
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				<fig-count count="12"/>
				<table-count count="4"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="52"/>
				<page-count count="0"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introducción</title>
			<p>México forma parte del continente americano, se ubica entre las latitudes 14° 32’ 27” norte y 32° 43’ 06” sur, por lo que puede presentar aridez al norte y climas húmedos al sur del país (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Hernández Cerda <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>). A lo largo del territorio mexicano se encuentran 32 entidades federativas, cada una con sus diversas ca- racterísticas y costumbres, pero que comparten un alimento esencial en común: las tortillas de maíz. Este alimento también se consume ampliamente en Estados Unidos de América y países centroamericanos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Rooney y Serna-Saldivar, 2016</xref>). Las tortillas de maíz son consideradas una comida étnica, su origen se reporta des- de el siglo V a.C y hasta el día de hoy es de alto consumo en México, cuyo valor nutricional y versatilidad para elaborar distintos platillos las hacen un componente básico en la dieta mexicana (Serna-Saldivar, 2015). El consumo anual per cápita de este alimento oscila desde los 75 hasta los 120 kg (CONEVAL, 2012).</p>
			<p>Las tortillas de maíz se envasan en porciones de 1 a 2 kg en papel revolución, papel kraft o bolsas de polietileno de alta densidad (PEAD). Una vez que las tor- tillas llegan a los hogares, las conservan en su envase original y también suelen ser depositadas en tortilleros (plástico, poliestireno u hojas de palma) (Secretaría de Salud de México, 2002). Algunos factores que contribuyen al consumo de este alimento son la costumbre, la tradición cultural, el ingreso y también por las cuali- dades mismas de la tortilla, es decir, el sabor, la textura y el aroma. Se estima que cada mexicano consume en promedio 67.5 kg de tortillas de maíz, suponiendo que el total de habitantes mayores a 15 años de edad en México consuman esta cantidad por año, se estarían produciendo cerca de siete millones de t de tortillas cada año (CONEVAL, 2012; INEGI, 2020).</p>
			<p>Las tortillas de maíz tienen un porcentaje de humedad del 45-50 % y una <italic>aw</italic> de 0.98, por lo que su composición y tipo de envasado hacen de este el medio apto para la proliferación de microorganismos que limitan su vida de anaquel (Heredia-</p>
			<p>Sandoval <italic>et al</italic>., 2021). Existen pocos reportes que evidencien géneros y especies fúngicos específicos responsables de limitar la vida de anaquel de las tortillas de maíz; sin embargo, se conoce que los principales géneros de hongos que proliferan en los granos de maíz pertenecen a <italic>Aspergillus</italic> sp., <italic>Penicillium</italic> sp. y <italic>Fusarium</italic> sp. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Martínez Padrón <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Wall-Martínez <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). El desarrollo de di- ferentes géneros fúngicos en el maíz se relaciona directamente con las características</p>
			<p>ambientales (temperatura y humedad relativa del entorno), donde se siembra, co- secha y almacena el grano (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Wall-Martínez <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Además, el desarrollo fún- gico también se relaciona con la higiene, es decir, la presencia de las esporas de hongos que se encuentren alrededor o dentro de las tortillerías y el tipo de envase que se utilice para las tortillas de maíz. Para disminuir el desarrollo fúngico se han adicionado diversos conservadores artificiales como el propionato de sodio y el sorbato de potasio (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Flores-Farías <italic>et al</italic>., 2002</xref>). La incorporación de los conserva- dores artificiales, además de prolongar la vida de anaquel de las tortillas, modifica sus características, ya que la adición de sorbatos o propionatos (dependiendo de la concentración) ocasiona que las tortillas cambien a un color blanquecino; en otras ocasiones, puede modificar su sabor y color (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Báez‐Aguilar <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>). En Méxi- co, la NOM-187-SSA1/SCFI-2002 indica el máximo permitido para el sorbato de potasio en las tortillas de maíz o harinas de maíz en México el cual es de 2,000 mg kg<sup>-1</sup> (Secretaría de Salud de México, 2002). Aun así, en 2002 se reportó que la concentración de aditivos en harinas de maíz comercial alcanzó hasta 4,000 mg kg<sup>-1</sup> de sorbato de potasio, y si lo multiplicamos por la cantidad de tortillas de maíz ingeridas en un año, su consumo podría tener efectos adversos a la salud (Flores- Farías <italic>et al.</italic>, 2002).</p>
			<p>Hoy en día los consumidores solicitan alimentos mínimamente procesados y</p>
			<p>que contengan compuestos naturales, por ello se estudia la posibilidad de añadir aditivos naturales directamente en alimentos. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">López Ortiz, (2016</xref>) evaluó el efecto de la adición de aceite esencial de azahar (AEA), de aceite esencial de naranja (AEN) y extracto de cúrcuma al 1% en la vida de anaquel de las tortillas de maíz almacenadas a 5 °C. La adición de AEA y AEN extendieron la vida de anaquel de las tortillas de maíz por 11 y 2 días más, respectivamente, comparado con las torti- llas de maíz sin ningún aditivo (15 días).</p>
			<p>Otra manera de adicionar estos compuestos naturales es directamente en el en- vase alimentario. De esta manera, se evaluó el efecto de dos envases antimicrobia- nos adicionados con AEA en la vida de anaquel de tortillas de maíz. El resultado del estudio fue que ambos envases alargaron la vida de anaquel del producto por 8 y 10 días más, respectivamente, comparado con el control (15 días) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Ibarra-Valenzuela, 2019</xref>). Otro ejemplo es el aceite esencial de clavo (AEC), que posee en su composi- ción a eugenol (E), isoeugenol (I) y acetato de eugenilo (AE) en mayor proporción. Estos compuestos han evidenciado tener propiedades antifúngicas contra géneros fúngicos que se desarrollan en el maíz (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Abbaszadeh <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014</xref>).</p>
			<p>Para evaluar el efecto de agentes antimicrobianos adicionados directamente a las tortillas de maíz o al material de envase, se realizan estudios de vida de anaquel en los que se les da seguimiento al crecimiento de los microorganismos que se desarrollan en este alimento. Existen diversos modelos de crecimiento microbiano cuyo supuesto es el crecimiento hasta un punto máximo, donde la velocidad de</p>
			<p>crecimiento disminuye y el desarrollo siguiente es constante. El modelo bifási- co se emplea para evaluar el crecimiento sobre tratamientos térmicos, el modelo Whiting analiza las curvas de supervivencia microbiana en la inactivación de mi- croorganismos, mientras que el modelo de Gompertz se utiliza ampliamente para estudiar curvas sigmoideas asimétricas de crecimiento e inactivación del desarrollo microbiano (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Bevilacqua <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>). Existen diversos programas que contienen aplicaciones para analizar datos con modelos de predicción. El modelo dinámico de ajuste (DMFit) es una herramienta de Excel, con la cual se pueden analizar datos con el modelo de Gompertz. DMFit proporciona tres variables (<italic>μm</italic>-velocidad de crecimiento máxima, λ-fase de latencia y <italic>A</italic>-crecimiento máximo del hongo en la fase estacionaria) con las cuales se puede evaluar el efecto de la adición de agentes antifúngicos sobre el crecimiento de hongos. El primer objetivo de este trabajo fue identificar a los principales hongos presentes en tortillas de maíz procedentes de las capitales de cinco estados de México. El segundo objetivo fue determinar la concentración mínima inhibitoria (CMI) del AEC frente a esos hongos. El tercer objetivo fue evaluar el efecto antifúngico del AEC, E, I y AE sobre el crecimiento de micelial de <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> identificado en esta investigación.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="materials|methods">
			<title>Materiales y Métodos</title>
			<p>Se seleccionaron cinco estados distribuidos sobre el territorio del país (Sonora, Nuevo León, Michoacán, Oaxaca y Yucatán). Se adquirió un kg de tortillas de maíz de una tortillería de cada capital localizadas en los cinco estados en 2021. Los criterios de inclusión para seleccionar las tortillerías adecuadas fueron: ser una tortillería local que incluyera la mayor cantidad de nixtamal para la elaboración de las tortillas de maíz. Esto aseguró que se utilizara la menor cantidad de conserva- dores artificiales incluyendo harinas comerciales. Las tortillas permanecieron en su envase original hasta su análisis (36 h), cada pieza se re-envasó en una bolsa de polietileno, se enfriaron a 25 °C y se colocaron en una hielera de poliestireno con dos bloques de gel para congelar. Las tortillas frías en la hielera se enviaron por servicio de paquetería y se recibieron al día siguiente en el Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A.C. (CIAD) ubicado en Hermosillo, Sonora (Son). Después del análisis las tortillas se almacenaron a -20 °C.</p>
			<sec>
				<title>Aislamiento de hongos en tortillas de maíz</title>
				<p>Los paquetes con las tortillas de maíz provenientes de los cinco estados de México se abrieron y se dejaron atemperar a 25 °C. Las muestras se prepararon y se realizaron diluciones según la NOM-110-SSA1-1994, se sembraron en agar papa dextrosa (PDA), las placas se incubaron a 25 °C por 72 h (Secretaría de Salud</p>
				<p>de México, 1994). Se sembraron tres muestras por cada paquete de tortillas de maíz por triplicado. Después del periodo de incubación (72 h) se prosiguió a la resiembra de cada colonia fúngica hasta lograr el aislamiento de cada una. Una vez que las colonias fueron aisladas se siguió la técnica de la “cinta adhesiva” y tinción con azul de algodón para observar la estructura fúngica al microscopio óptico Amscope B020c<sup>®</sup> a 40 X (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Guerra <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Para llegar a la identificación de cada género fúngico, se compararon las características macro y micro de cada hongo con la bibliografía reportada (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Barupal <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Nguyen <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Rangel-Muñoz <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Yin <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>).</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Identificación molecular de hongos</title>
				<p>Para la extracción del ácido desoxirribonucleico (ADN) se siguió la metodo- logía que reportaron <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">González-Mendoza <italic>et al</italic>. (2010</xref>). Se recolectó y liofilizó el micelio de cada hongo después de siete días de crecimiento. Se pesaron 20 mg de micelio y se le añadieron 200 µL de Buffer de lisis (SDS 3%, Tris-HCl 0.1 mM, pH 8.0, EDTA 0.5 mM, pH 8.0, NaCl 1 M) y la mezcla se agitó por 30 min. Se adicio- naron 200 µL de cloroformo/fenol (1/1) y se incubó a 65 °C por 5 min en un baño seco, después se centrifugó a 4 °C por 5 min a 10,000 <italic>g.</italic> El sobrenadante se vertió en otro tubo al que se adicionó el mismo volumen de etanol puro. El contenido se mezcló lentamente, se enfrió a -20 °C por 20 min y centrifugó a 4 °C por 5 min a 10,000 <italic>g</italic>. Se descartó el sobrenadante, el resto se re-suspendió en etanol al 75% y se centrifugó a 4 °C por 5 min a 10,000 <italic>g</italic>. Nuevamente se descartó el sobrenadante y al volumen restante se le añadieron 30 µL de agua Millipore<sup>®</sup>. Finalmente, se realizó electroforesis en gel agarosa al 1.5% para verificar la extracción de ADN de cada aislado.</p>
				<p>Se realizó la reacción en cadena de la polimerasa (PCR) de punto final para iden-</p>
				<p>tificar a cada aislado. Para la amplificación se utilizaron iniciadores con la región interespecífica (ITS)1 (5´-TCCGTAGGTGAACCTGCGG-3´) e ITS4 (5´-TCCTC- CGCTTATTGATATGC-3´). La mezcla final de la reacción fue de 25 µL: 12.5 µL de PCR Master mix (Promega<sup>®</sup>), 1 µL de platinum Taq polimerasa (Invitrogen<sup>®</sup>),</p>
				<p>1.5 µL de ITS1, 1.5 µL de ITS4, 2 µL de ADN y 6.5 µL de agua Millipore<sup>®</sup>. La reacción de amplificación se empezó 30 s a 95 °C, seguido por 35 ciclos de la siguiente forma: 1 min a 95 °C, 30 s a 50 °C y 1 min a 72 °C, la fase final duró 5 min a 95 °C (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Kim <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). Cada amplificación se cuantificó, se purificó y se analizó en el laboratorio Nacional de Biotecnología Agrícola Médica y Ambiental ubicado en San Luis Potosí. Las secuencias se compararon con las publicadas en la base de datos del banco de genes del National Center for Biotechology Information (NCBI, 2023).</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Concentración mínima inhibitoria (CMI) del AEC frente a los hongos aislados</title>
				<p>Para evaluar la CMI de AEC sobre hongos filamentosos, se siguió la propuesta de “Clinical Laboratory Standard Institute” con algunas modificaciones (Standards Clinical and Laboratory Institute, 2018). El AEC comercial utilizado se adquirió de Young Living ®. Se emplearon las siguientes concentraciones de AEC: 3.12, 6.25, 12.5, 25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800 y 1,600 µg mL<sup>-1</sup> y el medio de cultivo que se uti- lizó fue PDA. Cada aislado fúngico se resembró y al 5<sup>o</sup> día de crecimiento se tomó para cuantificar en cámara de Neubauer y se ajustó a 2,500 conidias mL<sup>-1</sup>. Una vez que se estandarizó el inóculo, se procedió a depositar 100 µL de AEC y 100 µL de inóculo en tubos eppendorf de 2 mL, por triplicado. Lo anterior se incubó a 25 °C durante 24 h para las especies de <italic>Mucor</italic> spp. y durante 48 h para el resto de los géneros fúngicos. Después del tiempo de incubación se cuantificaron las unidades formadoras de colonia (UFC) por vaciado en placa y la concentración en la cual no se observó crecimiento fúngico se tomó como CMI y se reportó como µg mL<sup>-1</sup> para 250 conidias.</p>
				<p><bold>Efecto del AEC, E, I y AE sobre el crecimiento micelial de <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic>
</bold></p>
				<p>Uno de los hongos aislados por su prevalencia (<italic>Aspergillus niger</italic>) se eligió para evaluar el efecto de AEC, E, I y AE sobre su crecimiento micelial. Para este ensayo se siguió el procedimiento de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Díaz-García <italic>et al</italic>. (2024</xref>) con algunas modificacio- nes. Inicialmente, se estandarizó el inóculo a una concentración de 1×10<sup>6</sup> esporas mL<sup>-1</sup>. De éste se tomaron 100 µL equivalentes a 100,000 conidias, las cuales se depositaron en un pocillo de 0.9 cm de diámetro ubicado en el centro de cada pla- ca Petri con PDA. Posteriormente, en un segundo pocillo se depositaron 100 µL de cada uno de los agentes antifúngicos AEC, E, I y AE a cuatro concentraciones (2,000, 4,000, 8,000 y 16,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>), de tal modo que se evaluó un compuesto y una concentración por placa Petri y por triplicado. Además, se incluyeron un control con agua y otro con etanol puro para descartar la posible actividad antifún- gica del diluyente. Todas las placas se incubaron a 25 °C durante 96 h, se midió el diámetro del micelio cada 12 h durante las primeras 48 h y después cada 24 h. Se consideró que las mediciones finales serían un día después de que los diámetros de los controles agua y etanol comenzaran a estacionarse. La medición de cada diá- metro del micelio se realizó en la dirección vertical de los pocillos, iniciando en el límite derecho de pocillo central y hasta el límite izquierdo hasta donde se extendió el crecimiento del hongo. Los resultados del crecimiento micelial y el porcentaje de inhibición de cada compuesto se calcularon con las ecuaciones 1 y 2:</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="ch1">
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24044-gch1.gif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="ch2">
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24044-gch2.gif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Los parámetros cinéticos (λ: fase de latencia, <italic>μm</italic>: velocidad máxima de creci- miento, <italic>A</italic>: crecimiento máximo del hongo en la fase estacionaria) del efecto de AEC, E e I se estimaron con la herramienta DMFit de Excel. La herramienta se alimentó con los datos del diámetro micelial (cm) que se obtuvieron en cada trata- miento y cada tiempo de muestreo (12, 24, 48, 72 y 96 h). El modelo de Gompertz permite obtener cada variable cinética y comparar el efecto de cada compuesto sobre <italic>λ</italic>, <italic>μm</italic> y <italic>A</italic>. El modelo de Gompertz se basa en la ecuación 3 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Bevilacqua <italic>et al.,</italic> 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Soro <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Zwietering <italic>et al</italic>., 1990</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<inline-graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24044-i003.gif"/>Ecuación 3</p>
				<p>Donde <italic>y</italic> es el diámetro micelial en un tiempo determinado de incubación, t es tiempo y <italic>μm</italic> es la velocidad de crecimiento máximo, λ es la fase de latencia y <italic>A</italic> es el crecimiento máximo del hongo en la fase estacionaria. Las fases de latencia (<italic>λ</italic>) y crecimiento máximo del hongo en la fase estacionaria (<italic>A</italic>) se analizaron en el paquete estadístico NCSS 2023 y se realizó una comparación de medias por Tukey- Kramer (p≤0.05) (NCSS, 2023).</p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="results">
			<title>Resultados</title>
			<sec>
				<title>Aislamiento e identificación de hongos en tortillas de maíz</title>
				<p>Uno de los dos aislados fúngicos de las tortillas de maíz de Monterrey, Nue- vo León (N.L.) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>B), Hermosillo, Son (Son) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>H), Mérida, Yucatán (Yuc) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>E) y el único aislado de Oaxaca, Oaxaca (Oax) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>C), se observaron similitudes morfológicas al género de <italic>Aspergillus</italic>. Este género se ca- racteriza por tener hifas hialinas en las que se encuentra un conidióforo circular uniforme, el cual presenta conidias en toda su superficie, las que se desprenden para formar otra colonia fúngica. La coloración de las colonias de <italic>Aspergillus</italic> spp. en medio de cultivo gelificado puede ser blanca, negra o verde (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref> B, C y E) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Ibarra-Valenzuela, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Rangel-Muñoz <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f1">
						<label>Figura 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Estructura fúngica por microscopía óptica (40X), aisladas de las tortillas de maíz de Morelia, Mich (A: <italic>Penicillium</italic> sp. y F: <italic>Mucor</italic> sp.), Monterrey, N.L. (B: <italic>Aspergillus</italic> sp. y G: <italic>Curvu- laria</italic> sp.), Oaxaca, Oax (C: <italic>Aspergillus</italic> sp.), de Hermosillo, Son (D: <italic>Penicillium</italic> sp. y H: <italic>Aspergillus</italic> sp.) y Mérida, Yuc (E: <italic>Aspergillus</italic> sp. y I: <italic>Mucor</italic> sp.).</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24044-gf1.gif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Por otro lado, un aislado fúngico (de dos) de las tortillas provenientes de More- lia, Michoacán (Mich) y Hermosillo, Son (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figuras 1</xref>A y 1D, respectivamente), se encontró la presencia del género <italic>Penicillium.</italic> Las colonias suelen ser planas ater- ciopeladas con circunferencia blanca en colores verdes que se tornan café oscuro durante su maduración (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Ibarra-Valenzuela, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Yin <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>).</p>
				<p>También se encontró <italic>Curvularia</italic> en uno de los dos aislados de las tortillas de Monterrey, N.L. (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>G). Este género presenta hifas septadas con microconi- dias ovalados y macroconidias de 3 a 5 divisiones en forma curva. Las colonias de estos géneros van desde verde oliváceo a marrón oscuro y se consideran dema- tiáceos debido a que poseen una coloración café debido a la producción propia de melanina (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Barupal <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f2">
						<label>Figura 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Crecimiento de hongos en PDA aisladas de las tortillas de maíz de Morelia, Mich (A, <italic>Penicillium</italic> sp. y F, <italic>Mucor</italic> sp.), de Monterrey, N.L. (B, <italic>Aspergillus</italic> sp. y G, <italic>Curvularia</italic> sp.), de Oaxaca, Oax (C, <italic>Aspergillus</italic> sp.), de Hermosillo, Son (D, <italic>Penicillium</italic> sp. y H, <italic>Aspergillus</italic> sp.) y de Mérida, Yuc (E, <italic>Aspergillus</italic> sp. y I, <italic>Mucor</italic> sp.).</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24044-gf2.gif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p><italic>Mucor</italic> spp. se encontró en uno de los dos aislados de las tortillas provenientes de Morelia, Mich (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>F) y Mérida, Yuc (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>I). Este género presenta hifas hialinas que se encuentran unidas al conidióforo circular uniforme y a diferencia del resto de hongos mencionados, produce y conserva a cada conidia dentro del conidióforo. Una vez que el conidióforo llega a su punto máximo de maduración es cuando la pared celular de este se rompe y libera cada conidia para formar una colonia nueva. Las colonias de este género fueron algodonosas de color café a gris</p>
				<p>y con la característica de llenar completamente la placa de cultivo en un periodo máximo de 48 h, además, debido a su rápida proliferación la mayoría de pruebas que se le realizan deben hacerse a las 24 h (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Nguyen <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>).</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Identificación molecular de hongos aislados de tortillas de maíz</title>
				<p>Durante la amplificación de las ITS se obtuvieron fragmentos de ADN con un tamaño de entre 500 y 750 pb. Las secuencias que se obtuvieron corroboraron el género de cada hongo, además permitió conocer la especie de cada uno. Se identi- ficaron a <italic>M. racemosus</italic> y <italic>P. herquei</italic> en los aislados de Morelia Mich con un 100 % de identidad. Posteriormente se identificaron a <italic>A. longivesica</italic> y <italic>C. spicifera</italic> en los aislados de Monterrey, N.L. con un 100 % de identidad. Después se identificaron a <italic>A. niger</italic> y <italic>P. brevicompactum</italic> en los aislados de Hermosillo, Son con un 100 % de identidad. Se identificó a <italic>A. flavus</italic> en uno de los dos aislados de Mérida, Yuc con un 94.23 % de identidad, mientras que la secuencia del segundo aislado que corresponde a <italic>Mucor</italic> sp<italic>.</italic> no se encontró en la base de datos del NCBI. Finalmente, el aislado de Oaxaca, Oax que se identificó como <italic>Aspergillus</italic> sp. no logró amplifi- carse con los ITS’s utilizados.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>CMI del AEC frente a los hongos en las tortillas de maíz</title>
				<p>Las CMIs de los hongos aislados de Michoacán, Nuevo León, Oaxaca, Sonora y Yucatán fueron desde los 200 hasta los 800 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>, esta cantidad corresponde de 20 a 80 µg de AEC añadido para inhibir el crecimiento de 250 conidias (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Cuadro 1</xref>). El hongo menos resistente a AEC fue <italic>A. longivesica</italic> ya que solo requirió de 200 µg mL<sup>-1</sup> para inhibir su crecimiento, después, <italic>M. racemosus</italic>, <italic>P. herquei</italic>, <italic>C. spicifera</italic></p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t1">
						<label>Cuadro 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Concentración mínima inhibitoria (CMI) de aceite esencial de clavo sobre hongos (250 conidias) aislados de tortillas de maíz.</title>
						</caption>
						<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Estados </th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Hongos </th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">CMI (µg mL-1) </th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td rowspan="2"> Michoacán </td>
									<td style="font-style: italic;">M. racemosus</td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">400 ± 0 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style: italic;">P.herquei</td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">400 ± 0 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td rowspan="2">Nuevo León </td>
									<td style="font-style: italic;">A. longivesica</td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">200 ± 0 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style: italic;">C. spicifera</td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">400 ± 0 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Oaxaca </td>
									<td style="font-style: italic;">Aspergillussp. </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">800 ± 0 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td rowspan="2">Sonora </td>
									<td style="font-style: italic;">A. niger</td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">800 ± 0 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style: italic;">P. brevicompactum</td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">400 ± 0 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td rowspan="2">Yucatán </td>
									<td style="font-style: italic;">A. flavus</td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">800 ± 0 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style: italic;">Mucor sp. </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">800 ± 0 </td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>y <italic>P. brevicompactum</italic> con una CMI de 400 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>. Finalmente, los hongos más resistentes a AEC fueron <italic>Aspergillus</italic> sp<italic>., A. niger, A. flavus</italic> y <italic>Mucor</italic> sp. con una CMI de 800 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>. <italic>Aspergillus</italic> sp. fue el género más prevalente en las tortillas de maíz y, además, el género más resistente a AEC con la CMI más alta. Por lo que, el control de este género es fundamental para garantizar la seguridad y calidad de las tortillas de maíz.</p>
				<p><bold>Efecto del AEC, E, I y AE sobre el crecimiento micelial de <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic>
</bold></p>
				<p>Posterior al periodo de incubación se observó que AEC (4,000 y 2,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) presentó el mismo efecto fungistático que E (8,000, 4,000 y 2,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) e I (16,000, 8,000, 4,000 y 2,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) a las 24 h, estos se encuentran en mayor proporción en este aceite (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>). El mayor porcentaje de inhibición lo produjo AEC a 16,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>, el efecto fungicida de esta concentración se mantuvo por al menos 96 h (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 4</xref>). El AEC (16,000 y 8,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) y E (16,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) produjeron los mayores porcentajes de inhibición (100, 57.1 y 67.3 %), respecti- vamente. La inhibición de AEC (4,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>, 27.6%), E (8,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>, 34.7% y 4,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>, 21.4%) e I (16,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>, 22.4% y 8,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>, 22.4%) no</p>
				<p>presentaron diferencias significativas entre sí. Mientras que, la adición de AEC y E (16,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) disminuyeron cinco y seis veces la velocidad de crecimiento de <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> respecto a los controles de agua y etanol, respectivamente. Por otro lado, ninguna de las concentraciones de AE presentaron un efecto antifúngico sobre el crecimiento micelial de <italic>A. niger</italic>.</p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="discussion">
			<title>Discusión</title>
			<sec>
				<title>Aislamiento e identificación de hongos en las tortillas de maíz</title>
				<p>Las tortillas de maíz son un alimento de consumo diario en todo México; sin embargo, existe escasa evidencia sobre especies fúngicas que limitan su vida de anaquel. El desarrollo fúngico de <italic>Aspergillus</italic> spp. y <italic>Penicillium</italic> spp. en alimentos es importante porque estos producen diversas micotoxinas. La incidencia de estos hongos en el maíz no se elimina con las condiciones de procesamiento de las torti- llas, por lo que se desarrollan una vez que se adaptan a las condiciones de almace- namiento del producto a nivel doméstico.</p>
				<p><italic>Aspergillus</italic> spp. y <italic>Penicillium</italic> spp. se encuentran en el maíz desde la cosecha (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Ullah <italic>et al</italic>., 2010</xref>), mientras que <italic>Curvularia</italic> spp. y <italic>Mucor</italic> spp. se relacionan a una contaminación durante el proceso de elaboración del alimento, por lo que pueden contaminar las tortillas al momento de ser envasadas. <italic>Curvularia</italic> spp. no se habían</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f3">
						<label>Figura 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Efecto antifúngico de AEC, E e I sobre el crecimiento de <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> en PDA a las 96 h de incubación a 25 ± 1 °C.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24044-gf3.gif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f4">
						<label>Figura 4</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Cinética del crecimiento micelial de <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> en PDA durante 96 h de incubación a 25 ± 1 °C. yVal=valores de y; Fit 1=curva con datos ajustados</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24044-gf4.gif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>relacionado con las tortillas de maíz o pérdida de la vida de anaquel de este alimen- to, pero si como causantes de infectar al grano de maíz, mientras que, <italic>Mucor</italic> spp. se identificó en tortillas de maíz elaboradas a partir de cinco razas diferentes de maíz (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">López-Morales <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). <italic>Curvularia</italic> spp. se asocia con la contaminación de almacenes y silos para granos de maíz, por su parte <italic>Mucor</italic> spp. ha sido aislado de silos con granos de maíz durante su almacenamiento, ya que este último es conside- rado un género fúngico contaminante del ambiente y no propio del maíz (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Akwuobu <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">García-Leaños <italic>et al</italic>., 2007</xref>).</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>CMI del AEC frente a los hongos en tortillas de maíz</title>
				<p>El efecto antifúngico del AEC se debe a los componentes terpénicos contenidos en este aceite, específicamente E e I son compuestos con carácter lipofílico que mo- difican la membrana fúngica e interrumpen el intercambio de iones, lo que produce lisis celular (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">de Oliveira Pereira <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>). Los resultados de la CMI (200-800 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) que se obtuvieron para <italic>Penicillium</italic> spp. y <italic>Aspergillus</italic> spp. frente a AEC se encuentran en la misma magnitud de la CMI (350-400 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) que reportaron para <italic>Aspergillus</italic> sp. y para <italic>Penicillium</italic> sp. frente a E (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Abbaszadeh <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014</xref>). Para <italic>Curvularia spicifera</italic> no se encontraron reportes comparables con el AEC, pero si con otros aceites esenciales, por ejemplo, el aceite de <italic>Psidium guajava</italic> (0.2 %) que tiene limoneno (29 %) y cariofileno (15%) en mayor proporción, este aceite inhibió el 53 % de <italic>Curvularia Lunata</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Chaturvedi <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Heer <italic>et al</italic>. (2017</xref>) evaluaron el efecto de <italic>Cinnamomum tamala</italic> que contiene E (52%) frente a <italic>Curvu- laria lunata,</italic> la CMI del extracto frente a <italic>Curvularia lunata</italic> fue de 2,117 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>. Hasta el momento no existen reportes sobre el efecto de AEC, E, I o AE frente a <italic>Mucor</italic> spp. que hayan empleado la técnica descrita en la sección de materiales y métodos, pero si existen dos reportes de la CMI de E frente a <italic>Rhizopus oryzae</italic>, la cual fue de 512 µg mL<sup>-1</sup> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Prajapati <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>) y 350 µg mL<sup>-1</sup> (Abbaszadeh <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014). Debido a la importancia de mantener alimentos libres de cualquier hongo y sus metabolitos secundarios, es importante tener una alternativa natural como el AEC para disminuir el desarrollo de estos en alimentos. Los resultados de la CMI del AEC frente a cada especie fúngica sugieren que 1,600 µg mL<sup>-1</sup> son suficientes para ejercer una actividad fungicida en cada caso.</p>
				<p><bold>Efecto del AEC, E, I y AE sobre el crecimiento micelial de <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic>
</bold></p>
				<p>El crecimiento de los diámetros de los controles (agua y etanol) disminuyeron a las 72 h, por lo que se consideró terminar las mediciones a las 96 h. <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> empezó a desarrollarse en los controles de agua y etanol a las 17 y 22 h, respectivamente; mientras que en AEC (16,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) y en E (16,000 µg mL<sup>- 1</sup>) tardaron ≥96 y 87.43 h, respectivamente. La concentración más alta de AEC</p>
				<p>impidió el crecimiento del hongo durante todo el periodo de incubación (96 h). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Pereira <italic>et al</italic>. (2013</xref>) y <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Tarhan (2021</xref>) reportaron que el efecto antifúngico de AEC se debe a E, puesto que se encuentra en mayor proporción en este aceite. No obs- tante, los resultados obtenidos sobre el efecto de AEC, E e I en el crecimiento de <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic>, sugieren que existe un mayor efecto antifúngico por AEC que por E e I separados en las mismas concentraciones. Esto ocurre porque en AEC se dan los mecanismos de acción de E e I que ejercen un efecto sinérgico, es decir, por su lado E se reporta que interacciona con la molécula de ergosterol en la membrana fúngica, mientras que I inhibe la formación de componentes de la matriz extrace- lular fúngica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Gupta <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>; Pereira <italic>et al</italic>., 2013). Los grupos hidroxilos de E e I promueven un efecto antifúngico sinérgico cuando se encuentran combinados en AEC. Consecuentemente, al aplicar una concentración menor de AEC (4,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) se obtiene el mismo efecto sobre la fase de latencia (λ) que al adicionar una concentración mayor de E (8,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) o I (16,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) por separado (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Cuadro 2</xref>).</p>
				<p>Los controles de agua y etanol empezaron a desarrollarse al mismo tiempo que</p>
				<p>las bajas concentraciones de AEC y E; sin embargo, estas concentraciones disminu-</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t2">
						<label>Cuadro 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Parámetros cinéticos del efecto del aceite esencial de clavo (AEC), eugenol (E) e isoeugenol (I) sobre el crecimiento micelial de <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> incubado a 25 ± 1 °C durante 96 h, obtenidos con DMFit 3.5 de Excel.</title>
						</caption>
						<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Tratamiento</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Concentración (µg mL-1)</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">λ (h)</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">μm (cm h-1)</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">A (cm)</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">R2 (%)</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td> </td>
									<td style="text-align:right;">16,000 </td>
									<td>≥96±0.00b </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">0.00±0.00×10-2a </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">1.00±0.00a </td>
									<td>100.0±0.00 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;">AEC </td>
									<td style="text-align:right;">8,000 </td>
									<td>63.33±0.00b </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">2.25±0.05×10-2bd </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">1.40±0.00a </td>
									<td>100.0±0.00 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right;">4,000 </td>
									<td>25.17±6.82ab </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">2.31±1.27×10-2bd </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">2.36±0.88b </td>
									<td style="text-align:right;">98.83±0.83 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td> </td>
									<td style="text-align:right;">2,000 </td>
									<td>26.05±5.02ab </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">2.94±0.77×10-2b </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">3.01±0.29b </td>
									<td style="text-align:right;">97.39±3.20 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td> </td>
									<td style="text-align:right;">16,000 </td>
									<td>87.43±7.42b </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">0.43±0.40×10-2ad </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">1.06±0.05a </td>
									<td>100.0±0.00 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;">E </td>
									<td style="text-align:right;">8,000 </td>
									<td>34.55±9.07ab </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">1.84±0.65×10-2abd </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">2.11±0.29b </td>
									<td style="text-align:right;">98.10±0.62 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right;">4,000 </td>
									<td>31.07±2.65*ab </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">2.26±1.32×10-2bd </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">2.47±0.37b </td>
									<td style="text-align:right;">93.64±5.56 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td> </td>
									<td style="text-align:right;">2,000 </td>
									<td>27.03±7.70ab </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">3.22±0.04×10-2b </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">3.21±0.04b </td>
									<td style="text-align:right;">98.64±0.01 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td> </td>
									<td style="text-align:right;">16,000 </td>
									<td>30.15±8.70ab </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">2.26±0.90×10-2bd </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">2.53±0.24b </td>
									<td style="text-align:right;">95.61±0.07 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;">I </td>
									<td style="text-align:right;">8,000 </td>
									<td>27.04±3.82ab </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">2.26±0.19×10-2bd </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">2.52±0.08b </td>
									<td style="text-align:right;">98.39±0.01 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:right;">4,000 </td>
									<td>32.91±3.59ab </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">2.60±0.25×10-2b </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">2.64±0.08b </td>
									<td style="text-align:right;">97.57±0.02 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td> </td>
									<td style="text-align:right;">2,000 </td>
									<td>23.36±0.57ab </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">2.71±0.49×10-2b </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">3.00±0.21b </td>
									<td style="text-align:right;">95.44±0.06 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:center;">AGUA </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>17.56±4.06a </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">5.56±0.68×10-2c </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">3.47±0.08b </td>
									<td style="text-align:right;">99.22±0.00 </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="text-align:center;">ETANOL </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>22.34±0.01a </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">6.17±0.01×10-2c </td>
									<td style="text-align:center;">3.17±0.06b </td>
									<td style="text-align:right;">99.01±0.00 </td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN1">
								<p><italic>λ</italic> = fase de latencia del hongo (h); <italic>μm</italic> = velocidad de crecimiento máximo (cm h<sup>-1</sup>); <italic>A</italic> = crecimiento máximo del hongo en la fase estacionaria (cm). Valores son media ± desviación estándar de triplicados. *= resultado estimado del promedio del triplicado con DMFit. Literales diferentes por columna indica diferencias significativas (p ≤ 0.05).</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>yeron la velocidad de crecimiento de <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> desde 1.6 hasta a 2.3 veces respecto al control de agua. Esto muestra que la adición de AEC y E a bajas concen- traciones tienen un mayor impacto sobre la velocidad de desarrollo y sobre el diá- metro máximo del hongo comparado con el impacto que ejercen sobre el tiempo de adaptación durante el periodo de incubación. Es decir que bajas concentraciones de estos compuestos tienen un mayor efecto en el desarrollo de hifas y conidióforos, comparado con el menor efecto que ejercen sobre las conidias del hongo. Al escalar la posible adición de AEC como aditivo alimentario, es justo mencionar que este compuesto podría tener la capacidad para disminuir la velocidad de crecimiento de los hongos presentes en las tortillas de maíz. La adición de AEC (8,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) en tortillas de maíz podría prolongar su vida de anaquel por lo menos 63 h más a temperatura ambiente, puesto que este tratamiento retrasa el desarrollo del hongo durante este tiempo. Los ensayos del efecto antifúngico se realizaron a 25 °C y las tortillas de maíz se almacenan a 5 °C, por lo que la adición de AEC en este alimento en conjunto con las bajas temperaturas de su almacenamiento podrían potenciar el efecto antifúngico que podría prolongar la vida de anaquel de las tortillas de maíz por un tiempo mayor a 63 h.</p>
				<p>El efecto de AEC, E e I sobre el crecimiento máximo de <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> pre-</p>
				<p>sentaron un comportamiento diferente en la fase de latencia (λ). Después de las 96 h de incubación AEC (16,000 y 8,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) y E (16,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) presentaron mayor efecto antifúngico (p≤0.05) sobre el crecimiento máximo del hongo en la fase estacionaria (<italic>A</italic>). Lo anterior, seguido de AEC (4,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>), E (8,000 y 4,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>), I (16,000, 8,000 y 4,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) similares entre sí. Finalmente, AEC (2,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>), E (2,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>), I (2,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>), agua y etanol no pre- sentaron diferencias significativas entre sí (p&gt;0.05). Los resultados sugieren que cada molécula cumple una función en el efecto antifúngico frente a <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic>, aunque en la fase de latencia (λ), I (8,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) no presenta diferencias con respecto a E (8,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>). Una vez transcurren 22.04 h el efecto antifúngico disminuye. Consecuentemente a las 96 h el crecimiento máximo del hongo en la fase estacionaria (<italic>A</italic>) en I (8,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) es similar a AEC (2,000 y 4,000 µg mL<sup>- 1</sup>) y es mayor a AEC (8,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) y E (8,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>). La fase de latencia (λ) es importante en el estudio del efecto antifúngico de AEC sobre <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic>, pero tiene mayor importancia sobre el crecimiento micelial, puesto que al reducir el crecimiento de hifas se puede reducir la producción de micotoxinas presentes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Hua <italic>et al</italic>., 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Mirza Alizadeh <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Allam <italic>et al</italic>. (2012</xref>) reportaron una disminución de crecimiento micelial y erradicación del 100% de ocratoxina A, mi- cotoxina producida por <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic>, al usar una concentración de 250 µL L<sup>-1</sup> de AEC.</p>
				<p>Previo a la búsqueda de compuestos naturales como el AEC para el control fún-</p>
				<p>gico en alimentos, se han utilizado diversos conservadores convencionales como</p>
				<p>los sorbatos y propionatos para controlar el desarrollo de hongos y la producción de micotoxinas en tortillas de maíz. La NOM-247-SSA1-2008 establece el límite máximo de algunos conservadores para tortillas de maíz como el ácido sórbico (1,000 mg kg<sup>-1</sup>) y el ácido benzoico (1,000 mg kg<sup>-1</sup>) (Secretaría de Salud de México, 2009). Mientras que el “Acuerdo por el que se determinan los aditivos y coadyu- vantes en alimentos, bebidas y suplementos alimenticios, su uso y disposiciones sanitarias” (Diario Oficial de la Federación de México, 2012) publicó una lista de aditivos para diversos alimentos. Ésta establece el límite máximo a añadir de otros conservadores como el benzoato de calcio (1,000 mg kg<sup>-1</sup>) y sorbato de potasio (2,000 mg kg<sup>-1</sup>) en tortillas preenvasadas. La adición de cada conservador y su consumo prolongado puede tener efectos adversos a la salud, por ello, una alterna- tiva natural puede ser la adición de compuestos naturales como el AEC. Tratando de hacer una equivalencia, el tratamiento de AEC (8,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) en placas de PDA (15 g de agar) resulta en una concentración menor (53.3 mg kg<sup>-1</sup>) a la con- centración máxima de conservadores artificiales establecida para tortillas de maíz (1,000-2,000 mg kg<sup>-1</sup>). Por lo tanto, el AEC podría ser una alternativa natural para disminuir el crecimiento de hongos en las tortillas de maíz y con ello prolongar su vida de anaquel.</p>
				<p>En este estudio se identificó la presencia del género <italic>Aspergillus</italic> en tortillas de</p>
				<p>maíz, en la industria de las tortillas de maíz se aplican aditivos artificiales princi- palmente sorbato de potasio y propionato de sodio; sus límites permitidos se en- cuentran en normas oficiales mexicanas (Secretaría de Salud de México, 2009). La incorporación de cualquier aditivo es capaz de modificar las características propias del alimento y la tortilla no es la excepción, ya que la adición de sorbatos o propio- natos causa que esta cambie, dependiendo de la concentración de aditivos alimen- tarios, puede modificar su sabor y color (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Báez‐Aguilar <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>). La Secretaría de Salud de México, (2002) incluye el límite máximo permitido para el sorbato de potasio en las tortillas de maíz o harinas de maíz el cual indica un límite de 2,000 mg kg<sup>-1</sup>; sin embargo, en 2002 se evaluó la concentración de aditivos en harinas de maíz comerciales y se encontró que la harina de maíz MASECA<sup>®</sup> contenía 4,000 mg kg<sup>-1</sup> de sorbato de potasio (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Flores Farías <italic>et al</italic>., 2002</xref>).</p>
				<p>Debido a las modificaciones que sufren las tortillas de maíz al ser aditivadas con conservadores artificiales como el sorbato de potasio y los efectos adversos a la salud por su consumo es que se buscan compuestos naturales que ejerzan la misma propiedad antimicrobiana (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Jarkvist <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Pepper <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). En el presente trabajo se encontró que se requieren concentraciones de AEC inferiores al límite permitido de conservadores artificiales (sorbato de potasio, 2,000 mg kg<sup>-1</sup>) para disminuir la velocidad de crecimiento máximo (<italic>μm</italic>) y disminuir el crecimiento</p>
				<p>máximo del hongo en la fase estacionaria (<italic>A</italic>). Además, la dosis mínima letal me-</p>
				<p>dia aguda oral (DL 50) de AEC (5,000 mg kg<sup>-1</sup>) es superior al DL 50 de E (1,930</p>
				<p>mg kg<sup>-1</sup>) e I (1,560 mg kg<sup>-1</sup>), es decir, se necesita ingerir una mayor cantidad de AEC para que pueda ocasionar algún efecto secundario, por lo que AEC podría ser una alternativa con menor toxicidad (Parvitra, 2024; Roth, 2024). Con respecto al precio del AEC en el mercado (MXN$3.7/g), es 2.3 y 4.1 veces menor respecto al precio de E e I (MXN$8.6/g y MXN$15.2/g), respectivamente (Sigma-Aldrich, 2023a, 2023b, 2023c). Lo anterior muestra que AEC es más asequible y con mayor efecto antifúngico que E o I, por lo que tiene una mayor capacidad para disminuir la cantidad de hongos presentes y prolongar la vida de anaquel de las tortillas de maíz.</p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusiones</title>
			<p>Se identificaron nueve hongos en las tortillas de maíz de cinco estados de Méxi- co por microscopía óptica, siete de los cuales se confirmaron molecularmente. Se encontró a <italic>Mucor racemosus</italic> y <italic>Penicillium herquei</italic> en Morelia, Mich, <italic>Aspergillus longivesica</italic> y <italic>Curvularia spicifera</italic> en Monterrey, N.L., <italic>Aspergillus</italic> sp. en Oaxaca, Oax, <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> y <italic>Penicillium brevicompactum</italic> en Hermosillo, Son, <italic>Asper- gillus flavus</italic> y <italic>Mucor</italic> sp. en Mérida, Yuc. La aplicación de AEC frente al crecimien- to de <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> demostró ser más eficaz para incrementar la fase de latencia (λ), disminuir el crecimiento máximo del hongo en la fase estacionaria (<italic>A</italic>) y la velocidad de crecimiento máximo (<italic>μm</italic>), con respecto E, I y AE. Además, la DL 50 y el precio del AEC en el mercado es menor que el de cada uno de sus componentes, lo que incrementa su potencial para controlar el crecimiento de hongos en tortillas de maíz y con ello prolongar su vida de anaquel.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
		<ack>
			<title>Agradecimientos</title>
			<p>Agradecemos a CONAHCYT por la beca otorgada a Ibarra-Valenzuela para la realización del posgrado. También agradecemos al Dr. Tomás Jesús Madera Santana, Dra. Citlali Colín Chávez, Dr. Marcos Morales y M.C. Joel Gerardo Cervantes Ramírez, quienes nos hicieron llegar las tortillas de maíz de cada estado.</p>
		</ack>
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					<year>2021</year>
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					<source>Journal of Fungi</source>
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	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="en">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Scientific Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Antifungal effect of clove essential oil and its main components on fungi isolated from corn tortillas</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<abstract>
				<title>ABSTRACT</title>
				<p> </p>
				<sec>
					<title>Objective/Background</title>
					<p>. Corn tortillas are a staple food in México that have a shelf life of 1-2 days at 25 °C due to fungal growth. A natural alternative for controlling fungal growth is clove essential oil (AEC) and its major components: eugenol (E), isoeugenol (I), and eugenyl acetate (AE). Objective: to evaluate the antifungal effect of AEC on the identified fungi present in corn tortillas.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Materials and Methods</title>
					<p>. One kg samples of corn tortillas were obtained from the capitals of five states of Mexico (Sonora, Nuevo León, Michoacán, Oaxaca and Yucatán). Fungi were identified by their morphology and molecular biology. Moreover, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) against AEC was determined. The effect of E, I, and AE on <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> (previously identified) was evaluated with the Gompertz model.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Results. </title>
					<p>Two fungi were isolated from corn tortillas purchased in Nuevo León, Sonora, Yucatán, and Michoacán, and one fungus from those purchased in Oaxaca. The following fungi were identified by molecular biology in corn tortillas: <italic>Aspergillus longivesica</italic> and <italic>Curvularia spicifera</italic> from Nuevo León; <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> and <italic>Penicillium brevicompactum</italic> from Sonora; <italic>Aspergillus</italic> sp<italic>.</italic> from Oaxaca; <italic>Mucor</italic> sp. and <italic>Aspergillus flavus</italic> from Yucatán; <italic>Penicillium herquei</italic> and <italic>Curvularia racemosus</italic> from Michoacán. The MICs were 200, 400, 800, 400, 800, 400, 800, 800, and 400 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>, respectively. AEC, E, and I at a concentration of 800 µg mL<sup>-1</sup> delayed the growth exponential phase of <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic>, while AE did not show any effect<italic>.</italic></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Conclusion. </title>
					<p>AEC could be a natural alternative for prolonging the corn tortillas′shelf life.</p>
				</sec>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Key words</title>
				<kwd>Eugenol</kwd>
				<kwd>isoeugenol</kwd>
				<kwd>eugenyl acetate</kwd>
				<kwd>Aspergillus niger</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introduction</title>
				<p>Mexico belongs to the American continent and is located between the latitudes 14° 32’ 27” North and 32° 43’ 06” South, hence the arid climates in the north of the country and humid ones in the south (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Hernández Cerda <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>). Along the Mexican territory are 32 federative entities, each one with its diverse characteristics and traditions, but which share an essential common food: corn tortilla. This food is also widely consumed in the United States of America and Central American countries (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Rooney and Serna-Saldivar, 2016</xref>). The corn tortilla is considered an ethnic food; its origin dates back to the 5th century and to this day it is highly consumed in Mexico. Its nutritional value and versatility for the preparation of various dishes makes it a fundamental component of the Mexican diet (Serna- Saldivar, 2015). The annual consumption per capita of this food fluctuates between 75 and 120 kg (CONEVAL, 2012).</p>
				<p>Corn tortillas are packaged in 1 to 2 kg portions in newsprint paper, kraft paper or high-density polyethylene bags (HDPE). Once the tortillas reach the households, they are stored in their original package and are often placed in tortilla holders (made of plastic, polystyrene or palm leaves) (Secretaría de Salud de Mexico, 2002). Some factors that contribute to the consumption of this food are custom, the cultural tradition, the income and also for the qualities of the tortilla itself, that is, its flavor, its texture and its aroma. It has been estimated that every Mexican eats an average of 67.5 kg of corn tortillas. Supposing that the total of inhabitants over 15 years of age in Mexico consume this amount every year, there would be a production of nearly seven million t of tortillas every year (CONEVAL, 2012; INEGI, 2020).</p>
				<p>Corn tortillas have a percentage of humidity of 45-50% and an <italic>aw</italic> of 0.98, therefore its composition and packaging type make the latter the adequate medium for the proliferation of microorganisms that limit their shelf life (Heredia-Sandoval</p>
				<p><italic>et al</italic>., 2021). There are scarce reports that show specific fungal genera and species responsible for limiting the shelf life of corn tortillas. However, the main fungal genera that are known to proliferate in corn grains belong to <italic>Aspergillus</italic> sp., <italic>Penicillium</italic> sp. and <italic>Fusarium</italic> sp. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Martínez Padrón <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Wall-Martínez <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). The development of different fungal genera in corn is directly related to the environmental characteristics (temperature and relative humidity of the</p>
				<p>surroundings), where the grain is planted, harvested and stored (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Wall-Martínez <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Additionally, fungal development also relates to hygiene, i.e., the presence of fungal spores found around or inside tortilla stores and the type of package used for the corn tortillas. To reduce fungal development, several artificial conservatives have been added such as sodium propionate and potassium sorbate (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Flores-Farías <italic>et al</italic>., 2002</xref>). The incorporation of artificial preservatives not only extends the shelf life of tortillas, but also modifies their characteristics, since the addition of sorbates or propionates (depending on the concentration) makes the color of the tortillas become more whitish, or it could also modify their taste and color (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Báez‐Aguilar <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>). In Mexico, the NOM-187-SSA1/SCFI-2002 indicates the maximum potassium sorbate permitted in corn or wheat flour tortillas in Mexico, which is 2,000 mg kg<sup>-1</sup> ( Secretaría de Salud de México, 2002). Despite this, in 2002 it was reported that the concentration of additives in commercial corn flour was as high as 4,000 mg kg<sup>-1</sup> of potassium sorbate, and if this is multiplied by the amount of corn tortillas eaten in one year, the consumption of this food may have adverse health effects (Flores-Farías <italic>et al.</italic>, 2002).</p>
				<p>Nowadays, consumers request minimally processed foods, with natural</p>
				<p>ingredients. For this reason, the possibility of adding natural additives directly on foods is being studied. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">López Ortiz (2016</xref>) evaluated the addition of orange blossom essential oil (AEA), orange essential oil (AEN) and turmeric at 1% on the shelf life of corn tortillas stored at 5 °C. The addition of AEA and AEN extended the shelf life of corn tortillas by 11 and 2 days, respectively, in comparison with the corn tortillas without any additives (15 days).</p>
				<p>Another way of adding these natural compounds is directly in the package. In this way, the effect of two antimicrobial packages with added AEA on the shelf life of corn tortillas was evaluated. The result of the study was that both packages extended the shelf life of the product by 8 and 10 days, respectively, in comparison with the control (15 days) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Ibarra-Valenzuela, 2019</xref>). Another example is clove essential oil (AEC), which includes eugenol (E), isoeugenol (I) and eugenyl acetate (AE), in a greater proportion, in its composition. These compounds have been proven to have antifungal properties against fungal genera that develop in corn (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Abbaszadeh <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014</xref>).</p>
				<p>In order to evaluate the effect of antimicrobial agents added directly to the corn tortillas or the packaging material, shelf-life studies are carried out in which the growth of microorganisms that develop in this food are followed up. There are diverse microbial growth models whose assumptions are growth up to a maximum point, where the growth speed decreases and the subsequent growth is constant. The biphasic model is used to evaluate growth under thermal treatments; the Whiting model analyzes microbial survival curves during microorganism inactivation, while the Gompertz model is widely used to study asymmetric sigmoidal growth and</p>
				<p>inactivation curves in microbial development (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Bevilacqua <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>). There are several programs containing applications to analyze data with prediction models. The dynamic fit model (DMFit) in an Excel tool which can be used to analyze data with the Gompertz model. DMFit provides three variables (<italic>μm</italic>-maximum growth speed, <italic>λ</italic>-latency phase and <italic>A</italic>-maximum fungal growth in the stationary phase) that can be used to evaluate the effect of adding antifungal agents on the growth of fungi. The first goal of this study was to identify the main fungi found in the corn tortillas from five Mexican state capitals. The second goal was to determine the Minimum Inhibiting Concentration (MIC) of AEC against those fungi. The third goal was to evaluate the antifungal effect of AEC, E, I and AE on the mycelial growth of <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> identified in this investigation.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="materials|methods">
				<title>Materials and Methods</title>
				<p>Five states, distributed throughout the country (Sonora, Nuevo León, Michoacán, Oaxaca and Yucatán) were chosen. One kg of tortillas was purchased from a <italic>tortillería</italic> (tortilla store) from each capital located in the five states in 2021. The inclusion criteria to choose the adequate <italic>tortillerías</italic> were: a local <italic>tortillería</italic> that included the greatest amount of nixtamal for the production of corn tortillas. This ensured the use of the least possible number of artificial preservatives, including commercial flour. The tortillas remained in their original package until their analysis (36 h); every individual tortilla was repackaged in a polyethylene bag, cooled to 25 °C and placed in a polystyrene cooler with two freezing packs. The cold tortillas in the coolers were sent by courier service and received on the following day in the Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A.C. (CIAD) located in Hermosillo, Sonora (Son). After analysis, the tortillas were stored at -20 °C.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Isolation of fungi in corn tortillas</title>
					<p>The packages with the corn tortillas from the five states in Mexico were opened and left to temper to 25 °C. The samples were prepared and dilutions were performed, following the NOM-110-SSA1-1994, poured on potato dextrose agar (PDA), and the dishes were incubated at 25 °C for 72 h (Secretaría de Salud de México, 1994). Three samples were processed for every package of corn tortillas in triplicate. After the incubation period (72 h) every fungal culture was sub-cultured until each one was isolated. Once the cultures were isolated, the “Scotch tape” technique was followed, then staining with cotton blue to observe the fungal structure under an optical Amscope B020c® a 40 X microscope (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Guerra <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). To identify each fungal genus, the macro and micro characteristics of each fungus were compared</p>
					<p>using the reported bibliography (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Barupal <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Nguyen <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>; Rangel- Muñoz <italic>et al</italic>., 2020; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Yin <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>).</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Molecular identification of fungi</title>
					<p>For the extraction of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the methodology reported by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">González-Mendoza <italic>et al</italic>. (2010</xref>) followed. The mycelium of each fungus was collected and frozen dried after seven days of growth. Twenty mg of mycelium were weighed and added with 200 µL of lysis Buffer (SDS 3%, Tris-HCl 0.1 mM, pH 8.0, EDTA 0.5 mM, pH 8.0, NaCl 1 M) and the mixture was shaken for 30 min. A total of 200 µL of chloroform/phenol was added (1/1) and it was incubated at 65 °C for 5 min in a dry bath, followed by centrifuging at 4 °C for 5 min at 10,000 <italic>g.</italic> The supernatant was poured into another tube where the same volume of pure ethanol was added. The content was slowly mixed, cooled to -20 °C for 20 min and centrifuged at 4 °C for 5 min at 10,000 <italic>g</italic>. The supernatant was discarded and the rest was resuspended in ethanol at 75% and centrifuged at 4 °C for 5 min at 10,000 <italic>g</italic>. The supernatant was discarded and the remaining volume was added 30 µL of Millipore<sup>®</sup> water. Finally, an electrophoresis was carried out in agarose gel at 1.5% to verify the DNA extraction of each isolation.</p>
					<p>The endpoint polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was carried out to identify</p>
					<p>each isolation. For the amplification, primers were used with the Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS)1 (5´-TCCGTAGGTGAACCTGCGG-3´) and ITS4 (5´-TCCTCCGCTTATTGATATGC-3´). The final reaction mixture was of 25 µL: 12.5 µL of PCR Master mix (Promega<sup>®</sup>), 1 µL of platinum Taq polymerase (Invitrogen<sup>®</sup>), 1.5 µL of ITS1, 1.5 µL of ITS4, 2 µL of DNA and 6.5 µL of Millipore<sup>®</sup> water. The amplification reaction began at 30 s at 95 °C, followed by 35 cycles as follows: 1 min at 95 °C, 30 s at 50 °C and 1 min at 72 °C; the final phase lasted 5 min at 95 °C (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Kim <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). Each amplification was quantified, purified and analyzed in the National Agricultural, Medical and Environmental Biotechnology Laboratory, located in San Luis Potosí. The sequences were compared with those published in the gene database of the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI, 2023).</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of AEC against the isolated fungi</title>
					<p>To evaluate the MIC of the AEC on filamentous fungi, the proposal of the “Clinical Laboratory Standard Institute” was followed, with some modifications (Standards Clinical and Laboratory Institute, 2018). The commercial AEC used was acquired from Young Living ®. The following AEC concentrations were used: 3.12, 6.25, 12.5, 25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800 and 1,600 µg mL<sup>-1</sup> and the culture medium used was PDA. Every fungal isolation was re-cultured and on the 5th day of growth, it</p>
					<p>was taken to quantify in a Neubauer chamber and adjusted at 2,500 conidia mL<sup>-1</sup>. Once the inoculant was standardized, 100 µL of AEC and 100 µL of inoculant were deposited in 2 mL Eppendorf tubes, in triplicate. They were incubated at 25</p>
					<p>°C for 24 h for the species of <italic>Mucor</italic> spp. and for 48 h for the remaining fungal genera. After the incubation time, the colony-forming units (CFUs) were quantified by plate pouring and the concentration at which no fungal growth was observed was taken as the MIC and reported as µg mL<sup>-1</sup> for 250 conidia.</p>
					<p><bold>Effect of the AEC, E, I and AE on the mycelial growth of <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic>
</bold></p>
					<p>One of the fungi isolated due to its prevalence (<italic>Aspergillus niger</italic>) was chosen to evaluate the effect of AEC, E, I and AE on its mycelial growth. For this assay, the procedure by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Díaz-García <italic>et al</italic>. (2024</xref>) was chosen, with some modifications. Initially, the inoculant was standardized to a concentration of 1×10<sup>6</sup> spores mL<sup>-1</sup>. From it, 100 µL were taken, equivalent to 100,000 conidia, which were deposited in a container, 0.9 cm in diameter, placed in the center of each Petri dish with PDA. Subsequently, in a second container, 100 µL of each antifungal agents AEC, E, I and AE were placed, at four concentrations (2,000, 4,000, 8,000 and 16,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>), in such a way that one compound and one concentration were evaluated per Petri dish by triplicate. In addition, a control with water and another with ethanol were included to discard the possible antifungal activity of the diluent. All dishes were incubated at 25 °C for 96 h and the diameter of the mycelium was measured every 12 h for the first 48 h, followed by every 24 h. The final measurements were considered to be one day after the diameters of the water and ethanol controls started becoming stationary. The measurement of each mycelial diameter was carried out in the vertical direction of the containers, starting on the right edge of the central container and towards the left edge, until the point to which the fungal growth extended. The results of the mycelial growth and the percentage of inhibition of each compound were calculated using equations 1 and 2:</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="ch3">
							<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24044-gch3.gif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="ch4">
							<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24044-gch4.gif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>The kinetic parameters (<italic>λ</italic>: latency phase, <italic>μm</italic>: maximum growth speed, <italic>A</italic>:</p>
					<p>maximum growth of the fungus in the stationary phase) of the effect of the AEC, E and I were estimated using the Excel DMFit tool. The tool wa fed the data of the mycelial diameter (cm) obtained in each treatment and each sampling time (12, 24,</p>
					<p>48, 72 and 96 h). The Gompertz model helps us obtain every kinetic variable and compare the effect of each compound on λ, <italic>μm</italic> and <italic>A</italic>. The Gompertz model is based on equation 3 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Bevilacqua <italic>et al.,</italic> 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Soro <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Zwietering <italic>et al</italic>., 1990</xref>).</p>
					<p>
						<inline-graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24044-i003.gif"/>Equation 3 where <italic>y</italic> is the mycelial diameter in a particular incubation time, t is time and <italic>μm</italic> is</p>
					<p>the maximum speed growth, λ is the latency phase and <italic>A</italic> is the maximum fungal</p>
					<p>growth in the stationary phase. The latency phase (<italic>λ</italic>) and the maximum fungal growth in the stationary phase (<italic>A</italic>) were analyzed in the NCSS 2023 statistical package and a means comparison was carried out with Tukey-Kramer (p≤0.05) (NCSS, 2023).</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="results">
				<title>Results</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Isolation and identification of fungi in corn tortillas</title>
					<p>One of the fungal isolations of the corn tortillas from Monterrey, Nuevo León (N.L.) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 1</xref>B), Hermosillo, Son (Son) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 1</xref>H), Mérida, Yucatán (Yuc) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 1</xref>E) and the only isolation from Oaxaca, Oaxaca (Oax) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 1</xref>C) showed morphological similarities with the <italic>Aspergillus</italic> genus. This genus is characterized for having hyaline hyphae with an even circular conidiophore, which displays conidia on all its surface, which detach to form another fungal colony. The coloring of the <italic>Aspergillus</italic> spp. cultures on gelified culture medium can be white, black or green (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 2</xref> B, C y E) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Ibarra-Valenzuela, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Rangel-Muñoz <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>).</p>
					<p>On the other hand, the presence of the genus <italic>Penicillium</italic> was found in one fungal isolation (out of two) of the tortillas from Morelia, Michoacán (Mich) and Hermosillo, Son (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figures 1</xref>A and 1D, respectively). The cultures are usually velvety in texture with a white circumference in green tones that turn dark brown during maturation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Ibarra-Valenzuela, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Yin <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>).</p>
					<p><italic>Curvularia</italic> was also found in one of the two isolations of the tortillas from Monterrey, N.L. (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 1</xref>G). This genus presents septated hyphae with oval-shaped microconidia and macroconidia with 3 to 5 curved divisions. The cultures of these genera go from olive green to dark maroon and are considered dematiaceous, since they have a brown color, due to its own production of melanin (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Barupal <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>).</p>
					<p><italic>Mucor</italic> spp. was found in one of the two isolates of the tortillas from Morelia, Mich (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 2</xref>F) and Mérida, Yuc (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 2</xref>I). This genus presents hylaine hyphae that are joined in the uniform circular conidiophore and, unlike the rest of the</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f5">
							<label>Figure 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Fungal structure by optic microscopy (40X), isolated from corn tortillas from Morelia, Mich (A: <italic>Penicillium</italic> sp. and F: <italic>Mucor</italic> sp.), Monterrey, N.L. (B: <italic>Aspergillus</italic> sp. and G: <italic>Curvularia</italic> sp.), Oaxaca, Oax (C: <italic>Aspergillus</italic> sp.), Hermosillo, Son (D: <italic>Penicillium</italic> sp. and H: <italic>Aspergillus</italic> sp.) and Mérida, Yuc (E: <italic>Aspergillus</italic> sp. and I: <italic>Mucor</italic> sp.).</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24044-gf5.gif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>fungi mentioned, it produces and keeps all conidia inside the conidiophore. Once the conidiophore reaches its highest point of maturation, its cell wall breaks and releases all the conidia to form a new colony. The colonies of this genus were cottonlike, brown to gray and with the characteristic of completely filling up the culture dish in a maximum of 48 h. Additionally, due to its quick proliferation, most tests must be done after 24 h (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Nguyen <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>).</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f6">
							<label>Figure 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Growth of fungi in PDA isolated from corn tortillas from Morelia, Mich (A, <italic>Penicillium</italic> sp. and F, <italic>Mucor</italic> sp.), Monterrey, N.L. (B, <italic>Aspergillus</italic> sp. and G, <italic>Curvularia</italic> sp.), Oaxaca, Oax (C, <italic>Aspergillus</italic> sp.), Hermosillo, Son (D, <italic>Penicillium</italic> sp. and H, <italic>Aspergillus</italic> sp.) and Mérida, Yuc (E, <italic>Aspergillus</italic> sp. and I, <italic>Mucor</italic> sp.).</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24044-gf6.gif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Molecular identification of fungi isolated from corn tortillas</title>
					<p>During the amplification of the ITS, DNA fragments were obtained with a size between 500 and 750 pb. The sequences obtained verified the genus of each fungus and helped identify the species of each one. <italic>M. racemosus</italic> and <italic>P. herquei</italic> were identified on the Morelia Mich isolations, with an identity of 100%. Later, <italic>A. longivesica</italic> and <italic>C. spicifera</italic> were identified in the isolations from Monterrey, N.L.</p>
					<p>with a 100% identity. Then, <italic>A. niger</italic> and <italic>P. brevicompactum</italic> in the isolations from Hermosillo, Son with a 100% identity. <italic>A. flavus</italic> was identified in one of the two isolations from Mérida, Yuc with a 94.23% identity, whereas the sequence from the second isolation that corresponds to <italic>Mucor</italic> sp<italic>.</italic> was not found in the NCBI database. Finally, the isolate from Oaxaca, Oax, which was identified as <italic>Aspergillus</italic> sp., was not amplified with the ITSs used.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>MIC of the AEC against fungi in corn tortillas</title>
					<p>The MICs of the fungi isolated from Michoacán, Nuevo León, Oaxaca, Sonora and Yucatán went from 200 to 800 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>, which corresponds to between 20 and 80 µg added AEC to inhibit the growth of 250 conidia (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 1</xref>). The least resistant fungus to AEC was <italic>A. longivesica</italic>, since it only required 200 µg mL<sup>-1</sup> to inhibit its growth, followed by <italic>M. racemosus</italic>, <italic>P. herquei</italic>, <italic>C. spicifera</italic> and <italic>P. brevicompactum</italic> with a MIC of 400 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>. Finally, the most resistant fungi to AEC were <italic>Aspergillus</italic> sp<italic>., A. niger, A. flavus</italic> and <italic>Mucor sp</italic> with a MIC of 800 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>. <italic>Aspergillus</italic> sp. was the most prevalent genus in corn tortillas, as well as the most resistant to AEC with the highest MIC. Therefore, controlling this genus is crucial to guarantee the security and quality of corn tortillas.</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t3">
							<label>Table 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Minimum inhibiting concentration (MIC) of clove essential oil on fungi (250 conidia) isolated from corn tortillas.</title>
							</caption>
							<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">States</th>
										<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Fungi</th>
										<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">MIC (µg mL-1)</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td rowspan="2"> Michoacán </td>
										<td style="font-style: italic;">M. racemosus</td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">400 ± 0 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style: italic;">P.herquei</td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">400 ± 0 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td rowspan="2">Nuevo León </td>
										<td style="font-style: italic;">A. longivesica</td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">200 ± 0 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style: italic;">C. spicifera</td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">400 ± 0 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Oaxaca </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">Aspergillussp. </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">800 ± 0 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td rowspan="2">Sonora </td>
										<td style="font-style: italic;">A. niger</td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">800 ± 0 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="font-style: italic;">P. brevicompactum</td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">400 ± 0 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td rowspan="2">Yucatán </td>
										<td style="font-style: italic;">A. flavus</td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">800 ± 0 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="text-align:center;">Mucor sp. </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">800 ± 0 </td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<p><bold>Effect of the AEC, E, I and AE on the mycelial growth of <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic>
</bold></p>
					<p>After the incubation period, it was observed that the AEC (4,000 and 2,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) presented the same fungistatic effect as E (8,000, 4,000 and 2,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) and I (16,000, 8,000, 4,000 and 2,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) after 24 h; these are found in a more significant proportion in this oil (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 3</xref>). The highest percentage of</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f7">
							<label>Figure 3</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Antifungal effect of AEC, E and I on the growth of <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> on PDA 96 h after de incubation at 25 ± 1 °C.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24044-gf7.gif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>inhibition was produced by AEC at 16,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>. The fungicidal effect of this concentration was maintained for at least 96 h (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figure 4</xref>). The AEC (16,000 and 8,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) and E (16,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) produced the highest percentages of inhibition (100, 57.1 and 67.3%), respectively. The inhibition of AEC (4,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>, 27.6%),</p>
					<p>E (8,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>, 34.7% and 4,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>, 21.4%) and I (16,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>, 22.4%</p>
					<p>and 8,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>, 22.4%) presented no significant differences with each other. Meanwhile, the addition of AEC and E (16,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) reduced the growth speed of <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> by five and six times in comparison with the water and ethanol controls, respectively. On the other hand, none of the AE concentrations presented an antifungal effect on the mycelial growth of <italic>A. niger</italic>.</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="discussion">
				<title>Discussion</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Isolation and identification of fungi in corn tortillas</title>
					<p>Corn tortillas are eaten every day throughout México. However, there is scarce evidence of fungal species that limit their shelf life. The fungal development of <italic>Aspergillus</italic> spp. and <italic>Penicillium</italic> spp. in foods is important, since these produce several mycotoxins. The incidence of these fungi on corn cannot be eliminated with the tortilla processing conditions, hence they develop once they adapt to the storage conditions of the product at a domestic level.</p>
					<p><italic>Aspergillus</italic> spp. and <italic>Penicillium</italic> spp. are found in corn from harvest (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Ullah <italic>et al</italic>., 2010</xref>), whereas <italic>Curvularia</italic> spp. and <italic>Mucor</italic> spp. are related to contamination during the production process of the food, hence they can contaminate the seeds at the moment of being packaged. <italic>Curvularia</italic> spp. had not been related to the corn tortillas or the reduction of their shelf life, although they had been related to infecting the corn grain, while <italic>Mucor</italic> spp. was identified in corn tortillas produced with five different corn races (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">López-Morales <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). <italic>Curvularia</italic> spp. is associated with the contamination of storage rooms and silos for corn grains and, in turn, <italic>Mucor</italic> spp. has been isolated from silos with corn grains during storage, since the latter is considered a fungal genus that contaminates the environment and not corn itself (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Akwuobu <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">García-Leaños <italic>et al</italic>., 2007</xref>).</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>MIC of the AEC against fungi in corn tortillas</title>
					<p>The antifungal effect of the AEC is due to the terpenic compounds contained in this oil, and specifically E and I are compounds with lypophilic characteristics, that modify the fungal membrane and interrupt the exchange of ions, which produces</p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f8">
							<label>Figure 4</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Kinetics of mycelial growth of <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> on PDA for 96 h of incubation at 25 ± 1 °C. yVal= y values; Fit 1=curve with adjusted data.</title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24044-gf8.gif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>cell lysis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">de Oliveira Pereira <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>). The results of the MIC (200-800 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) obtained for <italic>Penicillium</italic> spp. and <italic>Aspergillus</italic> spp. against AEC are found in the same magnitude as the MIC (350-400 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) reported for <italic>Aspergillus</italic> sp. and for <italic>Penicillium</italic> sp. against E (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Abbaszadeh <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014</xref>). For <italic>Curvularia spicifera</italic>, no reports were found comparable to the AEC, but rather with other essential oils, such as the oil from <italic>Psidium guajava</italic> (0.2%), which has limonene (29%) and caryophyllene (15%). In a greater proportion, this oil inhibited 53% of <italic>Curvularia Lunata</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Chaturvedi <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Heer <italic>et al</italic>. (2017</xref>) evaluated the effect of <italic>Cinnamomum tamala</italic>, which contains E (52%), against <italic>Curvularia lunata</italic>; the MIC of the extract against <italic>Curvularia lunata</italic> was of 2,117 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>. To date there are no reports on the effect of AEC, E, I or AE against <italic>Mucor</italic> spp. that have used the technique described in the Materials and methods section, although there are two reports of the MIC of E against <italic>Rhizopus oryzae</italic>, which was of 512 µg mL<sup>-1</sup> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Prajapati <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>) and 350 µg mL<sup>-1</sup> (Abbaszadeh <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014). Due to the importance of keeping foods free of any fungi and their secondary metabolites, it is important to have a natural alternative such as AEC to reduce their development in foods. The results of the MIC of the AEC against each fungal species suggest that 1,600 µg mL<sup>-1</sup> are enough to exert a fungicidal activity on each case.</p>
					<p><bold>Effect of the AEC, E, I and AE on the mycelial growth of <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic>
</bold></p>
					<p>The growth of the diameters of the controls (water and ethanol) reduced after 72 h, therefore the measurements were considered to be completed after 96 h. <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> began developing in the water and ethanol controls after 17 and 22 h respectively, whereas in AEC (16,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) and in E (16,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) they took ≥96 and 87.43 h, respectively. The highest concentration of AEC hindered the fungal growth during the entire incubation period (96 h). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Pereira <italic>et al</italic>. (2013</xref>) and <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Tarhan (2021</xref>) reported AEC is due to E, since it is found in a greater proportion of this oil. Nevertheless, the results of the effect of AEC, E and I on the growth of <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> suggest that there is a greater antifungal effect by AEC than by E and I separately in the same concentrations. This occurs because in AEC, the mechanisms of action of E and I exert a synergistic effect. Specifically, E is reported to interact with the ergosterol molecule in the fungal membrane, whereas I inhibits the formation of components of the fungal extracellular membrane (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Gupta <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>; Pereira <italic>et al</italic>., 2013). The hydroxyl groups of E and I promote a synergic antifungal effect when combined in AEC. Consequently, applying a lower concentration of AEC (4,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) leads to the same effect on the latency phase (λ) as adding a higher concentration of E (8,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) or I (16,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) separately (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 2</xref>).</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t4">
							<label>Table 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Kinetic parameters of the effect of the clove essential oil (AEC), eugenol (E) and isoeugenol (I) on the mycelial growth of <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> incubated at 25 ± 1 °C for 96 h, obtained with Excel DMFit 3.5.</title>
							</caption>
							<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Treatment</th>
										<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Concentration (µg mL-1)</th>
										<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">λ (h)</th>
										<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">μm (cm h-1)</th>
										<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">A (cm)</th>
										<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">R2 (%)</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td> </td>
										<td style="text-align:right;">16,000 </td>
										<td> ≥96±0.00b </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">0.00±0.00×10-2a </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">1.00±0.00a </td>
										<td> 100.0±0.00 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td rowspan="2">AEC </td>
										<td style="text-align:right;">8,000 </td>
										<td>63.33±0.00b </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">2.25±0.05×10-2bd </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">1.40±0.00a </td>
										<td>100.0±0.00 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="text-align:right;">4,000 </td>
										<td>25.17±6.82ab </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">2.31±1.27×10-2bd </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">2.36±0.88b </td>
										<td style="text-align:right;">98.83±0.83 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td> </td>
										<td style="text-align:right;">2,000 </td>
										<td>26.05±5.02ab </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">2.94±0.77×10-2b </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">3.01±0.29b </td>
										<td style="text-align:right;">97.39±3.20 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td> </td>
										<td style="text-align:right;">16,000 </td>
										<td>87.43±7.42b </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">0.43±0.40×10-2ad </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">1.06±0.05a </td>
										<td>100.0±0.00 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;">E </td>
										<td style="text-align:right;">8,000 </td>
										<td>34.55±9.07ab </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">1.84±0.65×10-2abd </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">2.11±0.29b </td>
										<td style="text-align:right;">98.10±0.62 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="text-align:right;">4,000 </td>
										<td>31.07±2.65*ab </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">2.26±1.32×10-2bd </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">2.47±0.37b </td>
										<td style="text-align:right;">93.64±5.56 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td> </td>
										<td style="text-align:right;">2,000 </td>
										<td>27.03±7.70ab </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">3.22±0.04×10-2b </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">3.21±0.04b </td>
										<td style="text-align:right;">98.64±0.01 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td> </td>
										<td style="text-align:right;">16,000 </td>
										<td>30.15±8.70ab </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">2.26±0.90×10-2bd </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">2.53±0.24b </td>
										<td style="text-align:right;">95.61±0.07 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;">I </td>
										<td style="text-align:right;">8,000 </td>
										<td>27.04±3.82ab </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">2.26±0.19×10-2bd </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">2.52±0.08b </td>
										<td style="text-align:right;">98.39±0.01 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="text-align:right;">4,000 </td>
										<td>32.91±3.59ab </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">2.60±0.25×10-2b </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">2.64±0.08b </td>
										<td style="text-align:right;">97.57±0.02 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td> </td>
										<td style="text-align:right;">2,000 </td>
										<td>23.36±0.57ab </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">2.71±0.49×10-2b </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">3.00±0.21b </td>
										<td style="text-align:right;">95.44±0.06 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="text-align:center;">WATER </td>
										<td> </td>
										<td>17.56±4.06a </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">5.56±0.68×10-2c </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">3.47±0.08b </td>
										<td style="text-align:right;">99.22±0.00 </td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td style="text-align:center;">ETHANOL </td>
										<td> </td>
										<td>22.34±0.01a </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">6.17±0.01×10-2c </td>
										<td style="text-align:center;">3.17±0.06b </td>
										<td style="text-align:right;">99.01±0.00 </td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
							<table-wrap-foot>
								<fn id="TFN2">
									<p><italic>λ</italic> = phase of latency of the fungus (h); <italic>μm</italic> = maximum growth speed (cm h<sup>-1</sup>); <italic>A</italic> = maximum growth of the fungus in the stationary</p>
								</fn>
								<fn id="TFN3">
									<p>phase (cm). Values are mean ± standard deviation of triplicates. *= estimated result of the average of the triplicate with DMFit.</p>
								</fn>
								<fn id="TFN4">
									<p>Different letters per column indicate significant differences (p ≤ 0.05).</p>
								</fn>
							</table-wrap-foot>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<p>The water and ethanol controls began developing at the same time as the low concentrations of AEC and E, although these concentrations reduced the speed of growth of <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> from 1.6 to 2.3 times regarding the water control. This shows that the additions of AEC and E at low concentrations have a greater impact on the maximum diameter of the fungus in comparison with the impact they exert on the time of adaptation during the period of incubation. Therefore, low concentrations of these compounds have a greater effect on the development of hyphae and conidiophores in comparison with the lower effect exerted on the conidia of the fungus. When considering the possible addition of AEC as a food additive, it is fair to mention that this compound could have the ability to reduce the growth rate of fungi present in corn tortillas. The addition of AEC (8,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) to corn tortillas could extend their shelf life by at least 63 hours at room temperature, as this treatment delays fungal growth during this period. The trials of the antifungal effect were performed at 25 °C and the corn tortillas were stored at 5 °C, therefore the addition of AEC to this food, along with the low temperatures of its storage, could boost the antifungal effect which could extend the shelf life of the corn tortillas for longer than 63 h.</p>
					<p>The effects of AEC, E and I on the maximum growth of <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> presented a different behavior in the latency phase (λ). After 96 h of incubation, AEC (16,000 and 8,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) and E (16,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) presented a more significant antifungal effect (p≤0.05) on the maximum growth of the fungus in the stationary phase (<italic>A</italic>). The above, followed by AEC (4,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>), E (8,000 and 4,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>), and I (16,000, 8,000 and 4,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) similar to each other. Finally, AEC (2,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>), E (2,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>), I (2,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>), water and ethanol presented no significant differences with each other (p&gt;0.05). The results suggest that each molecule has a function in the antifungal effect against <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic>, although in the latency phase (λ), I (8,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) it presents no differences with E (8,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>). After 22.04 h, the antifungal effect is reduced. Consequently, after 96 h, the maximum fungal growth in the stationary phase (<italic>A</italic>) in I (8,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) is similar to AEC (2,000 y 4,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) and greater than AEC (8,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) and E (8,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>). The latency phase (<italic>λ</italic>) is important in the study of the antifungal effect of AEC on <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic>, but it is more important on mycelial growth, since reducing the hyphal growth can lead to a reduction in the production of mycotoxins (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Hua <italic>et al</italic>., 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Mirza Alizadeh <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Allam <italic>et al</italic>. (2012</xref>) reported a reduction of mycelial growth and a 100% eradication of ocratoxin A, a mycotoxin produced by <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic>, when using a concentration of 250 µL L<sup>-1</sup> of AEC.</p>
					<p>Before the search for natural compounds such as AEC for fungal control in foods,</p>
					<p>diverse conventional preservatives, such as sorbates and propionates, were used to control the development of fungi and the production of mycotoxins in corn tortillas. The NOM-247-SSA1-2008 establishes the maximum limit of some preservatives for corn tortillas such as sorbic acid (1,000 mg kg<sup>-1</sup>) and benzoic acid (1,000 mg kg<sup>-1</sup>) (Secretaría de Salud de México, 2009). Meanwhile, the “Agreement establishing the additives and processing aids in foods, beverages and dietary supplements, their use and health regulations” (Diario Oficial de la Federación de México, 2012) published a list of additives for various foods. It establishes the upper limit for the addition of other preservatives such as calcium benzoate (1,000 mg kg<sup>-1</sup>) and potassium sorbate (2,000 mg kg<sup>-1</sup>) in pre-packaged tortillas. The addition of every preservative and its prolonged use can have adverse effects on human health; therefore, a natural alternative can be the addition of natural compounds such as AEC. In an attempt to find an equivalence, the AEC treatment (8,000 µg mL<sup>-1</sup>) in PDA dishes (15 g of agar) results in a lower concentration (53.3 mg kg<sup>-1</sup>) than the maximum concentration of artificial preservatives established for corn tortillas (1,000-2,000 mg kg<sup>-1</sup>). Therefore, AEC could be a natural alternative to reduce the growth of fungi on corn tortillas, thus extending their shelf life.</p>
					<p>This study identified the presence of the <italic>Aspergillus</italic> genus on corn tortillas.</p>
					<p>In the tortilla industry, artificial additives are applied, mainly potassium sorbate</p>
					<p>and sodium propionate; their permitted limits are found in the official Mexican norms (Secretaría de Salud de México, 2009). The incorporation of any additive modifies the food’s characteristics and the tortilla is no exception since the addition of sorbates or propionates causes it to change. Depending on the concentration of food additives, it can modify its flavor and color (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Báez‐Aguilar <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>). The Mexican Health Secretariat (2002) includes the maximum limit permitted for potassium sorbate in corn or wheat flour tortillas, which indicates a limit of 2,000 mg kg<sup>-1</sup>. However, in 2002, the concentration of additives in commercial corn flour was evaluated and it was found that the MASECA® brand corn flour contained 4,000 mg kg<sup>-1</sup> of potassium sorbate (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Flores Farías <italic>et al</italic>., 2002</xref>).</p>
					<p>Due to the modifications undergone by corn tortillas when added artificial preservatives such as potassium sorbate and the adverse effects on health due to their consumption, natural compounds are being investigated that may exert the same antimicrobial properties (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Jarkvist <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Pepper <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). This study found that AEC concentrations are required which are lower than the permitted limit of artificial preservatives (potassium sorbate, 2,000 mg kg<sup>-1</sup>) to reduce the maximum growth speed (<italic>µm</italic>) and delay the maximum growth of the fungus in the</p>
					<p>stationary phase (<italic>A</italic>). In addition, the acute oral median lethal dose (DL 50) of AEC</p>
					<p>(5,000 mg kg<sup>-1</sup>) is higher than the DL 50 of E (1,930 mg kg<sup>-1</sup>) and I (1,560 mg kg<sup>- 1</sup>). This means that a larger amount of AEC must be ingested to cause any adverse effects, suggesting that AEC could be a less toxic alternative (Parvitra, 2024; Roth, 2024). Regarding the price of AEC in the market (MXN$3.7/g), it is 2.3 and 4.1 times lower than the prices of E and I (MXN$8.6/g and MXN$15.2/g), respectively (Sigma-Aldrich, 2023a, 2023b, 2023c). This indicates that AEC is more affordable and has a greater antifungal effect than E or I, making it more effective at reducing the presence of fungi and extending the shelf life of corn tortillas.</p>
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				<title>Conclusions</title>
				<p>Nine fungi were identified in the corn tortillas from five states in Mexico using optical microscopy, seven of which were confirmed molecularly. <italic>Mucor racemosus</italic> and <italic>Penicillium herquei</italic> were found in Morelia, Mich, <italic>Aspergillus longivesica</italic> and <italic>Curvularia spicifera</italic> in Monterrey, N.L., <italic>Aspergillus</italic> sp. in Oaxaca, Oax, <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> and <italic>Penicillium brevicompactum</italic> in Hermosillo, Son, <italic>Aspergillus flavus</italic> and <italic>Mucor</italic> sp. in Mérida, Yuc. Applying AEC against the growth of <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> proved to be more efficient to increase the phase of latency (<italic>λ</italic>), reduce the maximum growth of the fungus in the stationary phase (<italic>A</italic>) and the maximum growth speed (<italic>µm</italic>), in regard to E, I and AE. In addition, DL 50 and the price of the AEC in the market is lower than each one of its components, which increases its potential to control the growth of fungi in corn tortillas and thus extend their shelf life.</p>
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				<title>Acknowledgments</title>
				<p> </p>
				<p>We would like to thank the CONAHCYT for the scholarship granted to Ibarra-Valenzuela for the completion of the postgraduate degree. We also thank Dr. Tomás Jesús Madera Santana, Dra. Citlali Colín Chávez, Dr. Marcos Morales and M.C. Joel Gerardo Cervantes Ramírez, who sent us the corn tortillas from every state.</p>
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