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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">rmfi</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Revista mexicana de fitopatología</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Rev. mex. fitopatol</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">0185-3309</issn>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2007-8080</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedad Mexicana de Fitopatología A.C.</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.18781/R.MEX.FIT.2406-3</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="other">00007</article-id> 
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Notas Fitopatológicas</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Etiología de la pudrición marrón tostado en fresa (<italic>Fragaria</italic> x <italic>ananassa</italic>) en el Estado de México</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Velasco-Montaño</surname>
						<given-names>Hugo</given-names>
					</name>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Ayala-Escobar</surname>
						<given-names>Victoria</given-names>
					</name>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Téliz-Ortiz</surname>
						<given-names>Daniel</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Landero-Valenzuela*</surname>
						<given-names>Nadia</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Leyva-Mir</surname>
						<given-names>Santos Gerardo</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1 </label>
				<institution content-type="original">Programa de Fitosanidad-Fitopatología, Colegio de Postgraduados, Campus Montecillo, km 36.5 Carretera México-Texcoco, Montecillo, Texcoco, edo. México. C.P. 56230, México; </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Colegio de Postgraduados</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Colegio de Postgraduados</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<postal-code>56230</postal-code>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2 </label>
				<institution content-type="original">Departamento de Horticultura, Universidad Autónoma Agraria Antonio Narro. Calzada Antonio Narro 1923, Buenavista, Saltillo Coahuila. C.P. 25315 , México; </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidad Autónoma Agraria Antonio Narro</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Autónoma Agraria Antonio Narro</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<postal-code>25315</postal-code>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>3 </label>
				<institution content-type="original">Departamento de Parasitología Agrícola, Universidad Autónoma Chapingo, km 38.5 Carretera México-Texcoco, edo. México. CP.56230 , México; </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidad Autónoma Chapingo</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Autónoma</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<postal-code>56230</postal-code>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1"><italic>*Autor de correspondencia:</italic> Nadia Landero Valenzuela <email>nadialandero00@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>17</day>
				<month>03</month>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<season>Jan-Apr</season>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>43</volume>
			<issue>1</issue>
			<elocation-id>RMEXFIT24063</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>07</day>
					<month>06</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>17</day>
					<month>11</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
					<license-p>Este es un artículo publicado en acceso abierto bajo una licencia Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumen</title>
				<p> </p>
				<sec>
					<title>Antecedentes/Objetivo. </title>
					<p>En cultivo de fresa establecidos en invernadero en Montecillo, Texcoco, Estado de México, en 2022 se observó manchas foliares color marrón tostado y pudrición de frutos con lesiones hundidas asimétricas, que se extendían y adquirían un color marrón. El objetivo del presente trabajo fue identificar el agente causal de la pudrición marrón tostado en frutos y plantas fresa.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Materiales y Métodos. </title>
					<p>Se colectaron frutos y hojas sintomáticos, de los cuales se obtuvieron aislados fúngicos para realizar las pruebas de patogenicidad en plantas y frutos, en plantas mediante dos métodos de inoculación: aspersión vía foliar y vía raíz; en frutos mediante inmersión. Se emplearon concentraciones de 2×10<sup>6</sup> conidios mL<sup>−1</sup>. Se amplificó y secuenció la región ITS del rDNA mediante PCR con los iniciadores universales ITS1-ITS4.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Resultados y Discusión. </title>
					<p>Se identificó morfológica y molecularmente a <italic>Pilidium concavum</italic> como el agente causal de la mancha y pudrición marrón tostado en fresa. Resultó patogénica en frutos de fresa cv. Aromas y en plantas menores de dos meses de edad. Mostró variación en virulencia, en plantas afectadas varió de 40 a 50%, en frutos alcanzó el 100%.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Conclusión</title>
					<p>. El resultado determina que <italic>Pilidium concavum</italic> es un patógeno que produce mancha foliar marrón tostado y pudrición marrón tostado en frutos de fresa. Permite nuevas líneas de investigación relacionados con el impacto de la enfermedad en la producción, rendimiento y calidad de fresas en México. Esta investigación es el primer reporte de <italic>Pilidium concavum</italic> como patógeno de fresa en el Estado de México.</p>
				</sec>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
				<title>Palabras clave:</title>
				<kwd>Pilidium concavum</kwd>
				<kwd>frutilla</kwd>
				<kwd>patogenicidad</kwd>
				<kwd>virulencia.</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="14"/>
				<table-count count="0"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="39"/>
				<page-count count="0"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introducción</title>
			<p>La fresa (<italic>Fragaria</italic> x <italic>ananassa</italic>) es una de las frutillas de gran importancia a nivel mundial desde el punto de vista económico, comercial y nutricional (Giampieri <italic>et al.</italic>, 2012; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Ikegaya, 2023</xref>). Sin embargo, en su ciclo de vida le afecta varios patógenos: hongos, bacterias, virus y nematodos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Petrasch <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Los hongos tienen un mayor impacto en la reducción del rendimiento y calidad nutricional, comercial y económica. Pueden infectar todas las partes de la planta y causar daños graves e incluso la muerte de la planta (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Garrido <italic>et al.</italic> 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Azam <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>). Entre los hongos y oomicetes patógenos que causan más daño a la fresa se encuentran: <italic>Botrytis cinerea, Colletotrichum</italic> sp., <italic>Sphaerotheca macularis, Phytophthora</italic> sp., <italic>Verticillium</italic> sp. y <italic>Diplocarpon earlianum</italic> (Reddy, 2016). Además, han surgido nuevos patógenos considerados como emergentes, los cuales adquieren cada vez más relevancia económica y científica con el tiempo.</p>
			<p>Los patógenos emergentes pueden poner en riesgo la productividad de la fresa, ya que su incidencia y severidad pueden aumentar rápidamente y causar pérdidas significativas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Milgroom, 2017</xref>; Ristaino <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021). Según <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Pedraza Herrera <italic>et al.</italic> (2022</xref>), las enfermedades emergentes son causadas por patógenos que han experimentado cambios en su incidencia, su distribución geográfica o su rango de hospedantes, así como modificaciones en su patogénesis, evolución o han sido descubiertos o reconocidos recientemente. Entre las nuevas enfermedades ocasionadas por patógenos emergentes están la mancha foliar y la pudrición de la raíz y corona causadas por <italic>Neopestalotiopsis</italic> sp. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Rebollar-Alviter <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Baggio <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>), pudrición de frutos por <italic>Neofusicoccum</italic> sp. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Zhan <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>), la mancha foliar y antracnosis ocasionadas por <italic>Pestalotiopsis</italic> sp. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Morales-Mora <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>), así como la mancha foliar marrón tostado y la pudrición marrón en frutos causadas por <italic>Pilidium concavum</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Fernández-Ortuño <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014</xref>).</p>
			<p>La presencia de la mancha y pudrición marrón tostado en fresa ha sido reportada hasta la fecha únicamente en nueve países: India, Venezuela, Polonia, Brasil, Bélgica, China, EUA, Irán y Corea del Sur (Fernández -Ortuño <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Park <italic>et al.</italic>, 2017</xref>). La gravedad de los daños causados por esta enfermedad varía considerablemente, desde un tres hasta un 50% de infección en plantas de invernadero e incluso al 70% en frutos almacenados (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Lopes <italic>et al.</italic>, 2010</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Debode <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>). El patógeno responsable de esta enfermedad es <italic>Pilidium concavum</italic> con un amplio rango de hospedantes en plantas silvestres y cultivadas. Entre las plantas silvestres afectadas se encuentran: <italic>Fallopia japonica, Hieracium caespitosum, Aesculus hippocastanum, Greyia radlkoferi</italic>, los hospedantes cultivados incluyen: <italic>Olea europaea, Fragaria×ananassa, Paeonia suffruticosa, Bergenia crassifolia, Rosa rugosa, Eucalyptus</italic> spp<italic>. Prunus domestica, Vaccinium corymbosum,</italic> V<italic>itis vinifera</italic> e <italic>Ilex paraguariensis</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Aguin <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>; Karimi <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Lopez <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>). La evolución de los patógenos emergentes hacia nuevas áreas geográficas plantea desafíos adicionales para el gobierno, agricultores y científicos ya que deben estar preparados para enfrentar una gama cada vez más amplia de enfermedades que amenazan la seguridad alimentaria y la estabilidad económica. Debido a la incidencia de la pudrición marrón tostado en frutos y hojas de fresa, en Montecillo, Texcoco, México, se planteó el presente trabajo con el objetivo de identificar el agente causal de la pudrición marrón tostado en frutos plantas de fresa, mediante pruebas de patogenicidad, características morfológicas y pruebas moleculares.</p>
			<p>Se realizó un muestreo aleatorio y se recolectaron diez plantas de fresa con síntomas de: mancha foliar, necrosis del pedúnculo floral y pudrición de frutos. Esto se llevó a cabo en los meses de octubre y noviembre de 2022 en el invernadero del Colegio de Postgraduados, Campus Montecillo, Texcoco, México, ubicado en las coordenadas 19°27'37&quot;N 98°54'12&quot;W. Las muestras se etiquetaron, empaquetaron en bolsas de polipapel y transportaron en hielera para su procesamiento en el laboratorio de Fitosanidad- Fitopatología, del Colegio de Postgraduados Campus Montecillo, Edo. de México. Las muestras se cortaron en tejidos de 1 cm por lado, se desinfestaron con hipoclorito de sodio al 1% durante tres minutos y se pusieron cinco tejidos por cada muestra en medio papa- dextrosa-agar (PDA; Bioxón®, Becton Dickinson de México) y en cámara húmeda. Se obtuvieron aislamientos de frutos y hojas. El reaislamiento del microorganismo asociado a foliolos y frutos sintomático de la cámara húmeda se realizaron en agua agar (AA; BD Bioxón<sup>®</sup>, Becton Dickinson de México) con el procedimiento descrito por el Servicio Nacional de Sanidad, Inocuidad y Calidad Agroalimentaria (SENASICA, 2018). Las siembras se incubaron bajo luz blanca natural a temperatura de laboratorio de 25±2 °C durante 72 h, hasta observar crecimiento micelial. Para la purificación del aislamiento, se transfirió punta de hifa en PDA. Los aislamientos monospóricos se obtuvieron mediante diluciones seriales, que se sembraron en AA al 1.6% y se incubaron durante 18 h; de ahí un conidio germinado se transfirió a medio PDA y las siembras se incubaron 25±2 °C. Se conservaron a 15°C en tubos de ensayo con PDA inclinado, adicionados con aceite mineral estéril (Montesinos <italic>et al.,</italic> 2015). La identificación morfológica se realizó con ayuda de claves taxonómicas reportadas por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Barnett y Hunter (2006</xref>) y para la especie con claves de Palm (1991) y Rossman <italic>et al.</italic> (2004). Se realizaron preparaciones semipermanentes con glicerol al 50% en portaobjetos para observarlas bajo el microscopio compuesto BX51 (Olympus, Japón). Se determinó coloración micelial, así como la morfología y morfometría conidial en 100 conidios por aislado con edad de 14 d después de siembra.</p>
			<p>Para las pruebas de patogenicidad se hicieron inoculaciones en frutos de fresa maduros, homogéneos en tamaño y color, y en plántulas de fresa cv. Aromas. La patogenicidad se evaluó en frutos con heridas y frutos sin heridas, previamente desinfestados. Las heridas se realizaron con una aguja estéril hasta una profundidad de 1 cm de profundidad en cada fruto. Se ocuparon cinco frutos por tratamiento. La inoculación se realizó sumergiendo los frutos durante 3 min en la suspensión conidial de 2×10<sup>6</sup> conidios mL<sup>−1</sup> ajustados mediante hematocitómetro. Los frutos testigos se sumergieron en agua destilada estéril por 3 min. Los frutos se colocaron en un domo de plástico con toallas húmedas estériles, como cámaras húmedas y se incubaron a temperatura de 25±2 °C, con luz blanca natural. La incidencia se evaluó como porcentaje de frutos afectados por el patógeno y la severidad como porcentaje de tejido afectado por el patógeno. En plantas se evaluó en plántulas de 1-2 meses de edad, 3-4 meses de edad y mayor a 4 meses de edad. Se inocularon por aspersión con suspensiones de esporas de 2×10<sup>6</sup> conidios mL<sup>−1</sup>, tanto vía foliar como radicular. Se asignaron diez plantas por tratamiento. Las plantas testigo se asperjaron con agua bidestilada estéril. Se incubaron en una cámara de crecimiento, con fotoperiodo de 12 h luz de día y 12 h de oscuridad, con una humedad relativa de 80% por siete días y se evaluaron la incidencia y severidad cada 24 h hasta los 20 d después de la inoculación. La incidencia se evaluó como porcentaje de foliolos afectados por el patógeno y la severidad mediante la construcción de una escala visual de siete clases de severidad (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>). Los foliolos de las plantas asintomáticas se desinfestaron y se incubaron en cámara húmeda por</p>
			<p>cinco días y se evalúo la incidencia. Las pruebas de patogenicidad se realizaron por triplicado. Los datos de incidencia y severidad se ajustaron en una distribución normal, se utilizó la prueba Tukey en la comparación de medias (<italic>P</italic> ≤ 0,05).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f1">
					<label>Figura 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Escala visual para la evaluación de la severidad de la mancha foliar marrón tostado en fresa. Elaboración propia.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24063-gf1.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>Para la identificación molecular se recolectaron micelio y conidios para extraer el DNA genómico, según la técnica de Ahrens y Seemüller (1992). Posteriormente, se amplificaron las regiones del gen ribosomal (rDNA) del espaciador transcrito interno ITS1 e ITS2 mediante PCR con los iniciadores universales ITS5 e ITS4 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Martin y Rygiewicz, 2005</xref>), mediante el método de Sanger en la empresa Macrogen (Korea). Las secuencias obtenidas se purificaron y consensaron con las secuencias depositadas en el Banco de Genes del National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) basados en búsquedas y literatura BLAST. Las secuencias que mostraron una similitud de 100% se alinearon en el software MEGA11 versión 11.0.13 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Tamura <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>) y el algoritmo de ClustaI y se compararon con las secuencias depositadas en GenBank del National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI), con apoyo de la herramienta BLAST. Las secuencias de mayor similitud se extrajeron del banco de datos para el análisis filogenético mediante la construcción de un árbol de unión de vecinos con el método Bootstrap y el modelo Tajima- Neil. Se consideró a <italic>Chaetomella raphigera</italic> como grupo externo (Número de acceso MH860747) y las secuencias de los aislamientos se depositaron en el Banco de Genes del NCBI. Los síntomas observados en los frutos de fresa cv. Aromas son lesiones hundidas asimétricas, húmedas; de color rosa, sin halo clorótico en el epicarpio. La lesión se extiende y se torna de color marrón con masas de conidios blancos que se tornan rosa-rojo y finalmente marrón en la superficie de la lesión (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>A-B). Las lesiones en hojas empiezan por el margen o en el ápice como manchas marrones, asimétricas, con progreso hacia la parte basal de la hoja, caracterizándose como hojas tostadas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>D-E).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f2">
					<label>Figura 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>A) Fruto con lesiones hundidas húmedas. B) Fruto con pudrición marrón y estructuras fúngicas. C) Estrangulamiento de color marrón en el pedúnculo floral. D-E) Hojas con bordes marrón tostado. F) hojas sanas.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24063-gf2.gif"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>El aislado en medio PDA, formó colonias circulares de forma regular a irregular, la presencia de micelio blanco fue escaso a nulo (forma de masa) con bordes regulares. El color de la base del crecimiento de la colonia se tornó de canela a marrón. A partir de los 12 d de incubación en medio cultivo PDA los bordes de la colonia se pigmentaron de color marrón claro a oscuro. A los 14 d después de la siembra se visualizó la formación de esporodoquios formados en círculos concéntricos, con aspecto gelatinoso, con base negra, discoides a hemisféricos de color marrón claro a marrón oscuro, suborbiculares de 354 a 658 x 370 a 688 µm de largo y ancho. Conidióforos hialinos, unicelulares, cilíndricos, filiforme de 17.64 a 48.04 x 0.83 a 2.49 µm, largo y ancho. Los conidios son hialinos, aseptados, fusiforme, con forma de canoa a alantoides de 5.84 a 10.95 x 1.29 a 3.63 µm, largo y ancho (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>). No se observó etapa sexual. Las características anteriores corresponden a las descritas por Palm (1991) y Rossman (2004) para <italic>Pilidium,</italic> reportándose como parásito facultativo con síntomas similares a los reportados por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Debode <italic>et al.</italic> (2011</xref>) y <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Fernández-Ortuño <italic>et al.</italic> (2014</xref>).</p>
			<p>El alineamiento de las secuencias en el banco de genes (GenBank) del NCBI, mostró una similitud de 100% con <italic>Pilidium concavum</italic> y <italic>P. lythri</italic>. En el árbol filogenético (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 4</xref>) el aislamiento se ubicó en un clado que comprende los aislamientos de referencia de <italic>P. concavum</italic> y <italic>P. lythri.</italic> Asimismo, se confirmó que <italic>P. concavum</italic> se relaciona más con <italic>P. pseudoconcavum</italic>, con un soporte de 94%. Los aislados se registraron en la base de datos GenBank con las accesiones OR568456 y OR568457. La presencia de <italic>P. concavum</italic> como como patógeno de hojas y frutos se ha reportado en varios países, incluyendo la India (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Phatak y Payak, 1965</xref>), Venezuela (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Cedeño <italic>et al.</italic>, 2001</xref>), Polonia (Gołębniak y Jarosz,</p>
			<p>2003), Brasil (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Lopes <italic>et al.</italic>, 2010</xref>), Bélgica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Debode <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>), China (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Geng <italic>et al.</italic>, 2012</xref>), EUA (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Fernández-Ortuño <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014</xref>), Irán (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Ayoubi <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>) y Corea (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Park <italic>et al.</italic>, 2017</xref>). Sin embargo, en México no había reportes de daños por este patógeno.</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f3">
					<label>Figura 3</label>
					<caption>
						<title>A) Esporodoquios en frutos de fresa. B) Esporodoquios en el envés de la hoja. C-D) colonia gelatinosa con masa de conidios en medio de cultivo PDA. E-F) corte longitudinal y transversal del esporodoquio. G) Conidióforos hialinos, cilíndrico, filiforme. H) Conidios hialinos, aseptados, alantoides.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24063-gf3.gif"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f4">
					<label>Figura 4</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Árbol filogenético basado en unión vecinos de la secuencia rDNA-ITS, que muestra una afinidad filogenética del aislado México (en negritas) con <italic>Pilidium concavum</italic> por encima del 95% del nodo. La barra de escala representa 0.02 sustituciones de nucleótidos por sitio.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24063-gf4.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>La taxonomía de este hongo no se precisa y ha pasado por reclasificaciones basadas en características morfológicas y análisis filogenéticos más recientes. El género <italic>Pilidium</italic> de la familia Chaetomellaceae, clase Leotiomycetes se describió por primera vez como <italic>P. acerinum</italic> (Alb. Y Schwein) (Rossman <italic>et al.</italic>, 2004). Actualmente, las especies reconocidas del género son: <italic>P. acerinum</italic>, <italic>P. lythri</italic> (conocida también como <italic>P. concavum), P. pseudoconcavum</italic>, <italic>P. eucalyptorum</italic> y <italic>P. septatum</italic> (Rossman <italic>et al.</italic>, 2004; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Kirk <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Crous <italic>et al.</italic>, 2013</xref>; 2015). <italic>Pilidium concavum</italic>, según Palm (1991) y Rossman <italic>et al.</italic> (2004), demostraron la relación entre el sinamorfo <italic>Hainesia lythri</italic>, <italic>Dacryomyces lythri</italic> (teleoformo <italic>Discohainesia oenotherae</italic>), <italic>Peziza oenotherae</italic>, <italic>Pezizella oenotherae y Sclerotiopsis testudinacea</italic> como morfotipos de la misma especie, por lo que se consideran sinónimos. Sin embargo, <italic>Pilidium</italic> es el nombre genérico más antiguo utilizado e incluye varias especies fitopatógenas. Recientemente, Rossman (2014) transfirió a <italic>P. concavum</italic> como sinónimo de <italic>P. lythri,</italic> por lo que ahora referirse en cualquiera de los nombres se considera válido, como una misma especie (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Johnston <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014</xref>).</p>
			<p>En las pruebas de patogenicidad, al tercer día después de la inoculación en frutos con heridas se observaron lesiones hundidas de color rosa opaco a marrón con masas conidiales iniciales color blanco, rosa y finalmente se turnó a marrón (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figura 5</xref>A), la incidencia y severidad fue de 100%. En frutos sin heridas los síntomas con estructuras fúngicas se presentaron al quinto día después de la inoculación y la incidencia y severidad fue de 100% (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figura 5</xref>D). Las estructuras y esporas en los frutos sintomáticos eran morfológicamente idénticas a las colonias originales utilizadas para la producción de inóculo. Los frutos testigos no mostraron ningún síntoma de la enfermedad. Por lo que a través de estas pruebas se determinó que el agente causal de la pudrición marrón en frutos de fresa es <italic>P. concavum.</italic> Como en las pruebas consistentes reportados por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Debode <italic>et al.</italic> (2011</xref>) y Karimi <italic>et al.</italic>, (2016) en los frutos de fresa.</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f5">
					<label>Figura 5</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Pruebas de patogenicidad en frutos de fresa inoculados en una concentración de 2×10<sup>6</sup> conidios mL<sup>−1</sup> del hongo <italic>Pilidium concavum</italic>. <bold>A)</bold> Fruto con heridas inoculado con el hongo. <bold>B)</bold> Fruto con herida con síntomas a las 72 h ddi. <bold>C)</bold> Esporodoquios del hongo en el fruto con heridas. <bold>D)</bold> Frutos sin heridas inoculado con el hongo. <bold>E)</bold> Fruto sin herida con síntomas a las 96 h ddi. <bold>F)</bold> Esporodoquios del hongo en el fruto sin heridas. <bold>G)</bold> Testigo inoculado con agua destilada estéril, sin ningún síntoma los 96 h ddi.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24063-gf5.gif"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>Las plántulas inoculadas de aproximadamente 1 y 2 meses de edad, se observaron síntomas leves en brotes nuevos y en hojas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 6</xref>) a los 20 días después de la inoculación. La inoculación en hojas mostró 50% de incidencia con 20% de severidad. La mayoría de los síntomas se observaron en brotes (hojas nuevas) y hojas maduras senescentes. En contraste, en las plantas inoculadas por raíz, la incidencia fue de 40% y los síntomas se presentaron en hojas senescentes y en hojas nuevas con un 10% de severidad. Los foliolos asintomáticos después de 5 d en cámara húmeda se observaron los esporodoquios de color anaranjado a marrón en las hojas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 7</xref>). Se observaron estructuras fúngicas en un 90% en el tratamiento inoculado en hojas y un 80% en el inoculado en raíz. No se observaron estructuras en tallo, ni raíces, solo en hojas. Se reaisló el microorganismo y a través de la identificación morfológica se determinó su identidad. Se infiere que el hongo es un potencial patógeno para plántulas de vivero. Esto concuerda con <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Debode <italic>et al.</italic> (2011</xref>) y <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Fernández-Ortuño <italic>et al.</italic> (2014</xref>) quienes informaron sobre la infección en vivero y lotes de trasplante. La infección a las plantas fue sistémica. Las plantas inoculadas por raíz presentaron estructuras en las hojas cuando fueron expuestas a cámara húmeda, resultados muy similares a los obtenidos por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Lopez <italic>et al.</italic> (2020</xref>) al inocular plantas de yerba de mate vía raíz, donde se observaron daños en las hojas. En este estudió se observó en plantas en etapa de fructificación 6 meses después de la inoculación, síntomas de pudrición de frutos, por lo que el inóculo estuvo latente en las plantas y provocó daños cuando las condiciones le fueron favorables. De acuerdo con <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Hipol <italic>et al.</italic> (2014</xref>), <italic>P. concavum</italic> forma parte de los hongos endófitos, ya que pertenece a la clase de los Leotiomycetes del subfilo Pezizomycotina, donde se ubican los hongos endomicorrizas endófitos comunes. Por lo tanto, puede tener la capacidad de ser endófito en las plantas de fresa. La inoculación en plantas de fresa de tres y mayor de cuatro meses de edad no indujo síntomas de pudrición marrón en las hojas. Sin embargo, cuando estas desarrollaron y fructificaron después de 6 meses de la inoculación, los frutos y botones florales presentaron síntomas con estructuras fúngicas de <italic>P. concavum</italic>.</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f6">
					<label>Figura 6</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Plantas de fresa (<italic>Fragaria x ananassa</italic>) cv. Aromas menor de tres meses de edad, a los 15 días después de inoculación (dpi) con una suspensión de 2x10<sup>6</sup> conidios por mL de <italic>Pilidium concavum.</italic> A) Inoculación vía foliar; B) Inoculación vía raíz; C) Testigo inoculado con agua destilada estéril.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24063-gf6.gif"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f7">
					<label>Figura 7</label>
					<caption>
						<title>A) Hojas de fresa asintomáticos después de 28 dpi, puestos en cámara húmeda B) Formación de esporodoquios en las hojas después de 5 días en cámara húmeda.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24063-gf7.gif"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p><italic>P. concavum</italic> es un hongo con amplia gama de hospedantes. Su importancia radica en afectar a cultivos de valor económico especialmente a los frutos de olivo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Arzanlou <italic>et al.</italic>, 2013</xref>), yerba de mate (López <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020), racimos de uva (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Aguin <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>) y a la fresa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Debode <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>). Por lo que la evolución este patógeno, su distribución geográfica, el rango de hospedantes y su interacción con las plantas adquieren una relevancia creciente en el contexto del cambio climático global. Este fenómeno afecta la comunidad vegetal en todos sus aspectos, desde el crecimiento y reproducción hasta la resistencia y susceptibilidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Zhao <italic>et al.</italic>, 2017</xref>; Tito <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018). Además, el cambio climático altera la población y el comportamiento de los microorganismos, alterando las interacciones entre estos y sus hospedante (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Cohen y Leach, 2020</xref>). Esto puede llevar a la adopción de nuevas estrategias de invasión mediante la modificación del sistema de virulencia, lo que a su vez podría comprometer la resistencia de las plantas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Cheng <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>). Como consecuencia, la interacción planta-microorganismo puede transformarse de una asociación mutualista a patogénica o viceversa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">González <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>). En este estudio, se reporta a <italic>Pilidium concavum</italic> como la especie que causó la pudrición marrón tostado en frutos y hojas de fresa en Montecillo, Texcoco, Estado de México. Las características morfológicas y las pruebas de patogenicidad junto con la caracterización molecular y una evaluación de la literatura demostraron que no había diversidad genética entre los aislados en foliolos y en frutos, aunque se requieren mayores estudios y monitorear regiones en donde se cultive la fresa. Se asoció con mayor frecuencia lo síntomas en frutos, lo que contribuyó a las dificultades de replicación de síntomas en hojas. Se necesita investigación adicional para dilucidar el origen del nuevo patógeno y el ciclo de la enfermedad y desarrollar estrategias integradas para el manejo de la enfermedad en viveros y postcosecha.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
		<ack>
			<title>Agradecimientos</title>
			<p>Se agradece a Colegio de Postgraduados al programa de Fitosanidad-Fitopatología y al CONAHCYT por beca otorgada.</p>
		</ack>
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	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="en">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Phytopathological Note</subject>
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				<article-title>Etiology of brown rot in strawberry (<italic>Fragaria x ananassa</italic>) in the State of Mexico</article-title>
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				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p> </p>
				<sec>
					<title>Background/Objective. </title>
					<p>In a strawberry crop established in a greenhouse in Montecillo, Texcoco, State of Mexico, in 2022, brownish brown leaf spots and rotting of fruits with asymmetric sunken lesions were observed, which extended and acquired a brown color. The objective of the present work was to identify the causal agent of brown rot in fruits and strawberry plants.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Materials and Methods. </title>
					<p>Symptomatic fruits and leaves were collected, from which fungal isolates were obtained to perform pathogenicity tests on plants and fruits, in plants by two inoculation methods: spraying via foliar and via root; in fruits by immersion. Concentrations of 2×106 conidia mL-1 were used. The ITS region of the rDNA was amplified and sequenced by PCR with the universal primers ITS1-ITS4.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Results. </title>
					<p><italic>Pilidium concavum</italic> was morphologically and molecularly identified as the causal agent of brown spot and brown rot on strawberry. It was found to be pathogenic in strawberry fruits cv. Aromas and in plants less than two months old. It showed variation in virulence, in affected plants it varied from 40 to 50%, in fruits it reached 100%.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Conclusion. </title>
					<p>The result determines that <italic>Pilidium concavum</italic> is a pathogen that produces brown leaf spot and brown rot in strawberry fruits. It allows new lines of research related to the impact of the disease on strawberry production, yield and quality in Mexico. This research is the first report of <italic>Pilidium concavum</italic> as a strawberry pathogen in the State of Mexico.</p>
				</sec>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>Pilidium concavum</kwd>
				<kwd>strawberry</kwd>
				<kwd>pathogenicity</kwd>
				<kwd>virulence.</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introduction</title>
				<p>Strawberry (<italic>Fragaria</italic> x <italic>ananassa</italic>) is one of the most important fruits worldwide from an economic, commercial, and nutritional perspective (Giampieri <italic>et al</italic>., 2012; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Ikegaya, 2023</xref>). However, several pathogens affect its life cycle, including fungi, bacteria, viruses, and nematodes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Petrasch <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Fungi have the greatest impact on reducing yield and nutritional, commercial, and economic quality. They can infect all parts of the plant, causing severe damage and even plant death (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Garrido <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Azam <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Among the most damaging fungal and oomycete pathogens affecting strawberries are <italic>Botrytis cinerea</italic>, <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> sp., <italic>Sphaerotheca macularis</italic>, <italic>Phytophthora</italic> sp., <italic>Verticillium</italic> sp., and <italic>Diplocarpon earlianum</italic> (Reddy, 2016). Additionally, new emerging pathogens have gained increasing economic and scientific significance over time.</p>
				<p>Emerging pathogens pose a significant threat to strawberry productivity, as their incidence and severity can increase rapidly, resulting in substantial losses (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Milgroom, 2017</xref>; Ristaino <italic>et al</italic>., 2021). According to <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Pedraza Herrera <italic>et al</italic>. (2022</xref>), emerging diseases are caused by pathogens that have undergone changes in their incidence, geographic distribution, or host range, as well as alterations in their pathogenesis, evolution, or have been newly discovered or recognized. Among the new diseases caused by emerging pathogens are leaf spot and root and crown rot caused by <italic>Neopestalotiopsis</italic> sp. (Rebollar- Alviter <italic>et al</italic>., 2020; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Baggio <italic>et al.,</italic> 2021</xref>), fruit rot caused by <italic>Neofusicoccum</italic> sp. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Zhan <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>), leaf spot and anthracnose caused by <italic>Pestalotiopsis</italic> sp. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Morales-Mora <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>), and brown leaf spot and fruit rot caused by <italic>Pilidium concavum</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Fernández-Ortuño <italic>et al</italic>., 2014</xref>).</p>
				<p>The presence of brown necrotic spot and rot on strawberry has been reported to date in only nine countries: India, Venezuela, Poland, Brazil, Belgium, China, the USA, Iran, and South Korea (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Fernández-Ortuño <italic>et al</italic>., 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Park <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>). The severity of the damage caused by this disease varies considerably, ranging from 3% to 50% infection in greenhouse plants, and up to 70% in stored fruit (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Lopes <italic>et al</italic>., 2010</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Debode <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>). The pathogen responsible for this disease is <italic>Pilidium concavum</italic>, which has a broad host range in both wild and cultivated plants. Affected wild plants include <italic>Fallopia japonica</italic>, <italic>Hieracium caespitosum</italic>, <italic>Aesculus hippocastanum</italic>, <italic>Greyia radlkoferi</italic>, while cultivated hosts include <italic>Olea europaea</italic>, <italic>Fragaria×ananassa</italic>, <italic>Paeonia suffruticosa</italic>, <italic>Bergenia crassifolia</italic>, <italic>Rosa rugosa</italic>, <italic>Eucalyptus spp.</italic>, <italic>Prunus domestica</italic>, <italic>Vaccinium corymbosum</italic>, <italic>Vitis vinifera</italic>, and <italic>Ilex paraguariensis</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Aguin <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>; Karimi <italic>et al</italic>., 2016; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Lopez <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). The spread of emerging pathogens to new geographical areas presents additional challenges for governments, farmers, and scientists, as they must be prepared to confront an expanding range of diseases that threaten food security and economic stability. Due to the incidence of brown toasted rot on strawberry fruit and leaves in Montecillo, Texcoco, Mexico, this study was designed to identify the causal agent of brown toasted rot in strawberry fruit plants through pathogenicity tests, morphological characteristics, and molecular assays.</p>
				<disp-quote>
					<p>A random sampling was conducted, and ten strawberry plants showing symptoms of leaf spot, flower peduncle necrosis, and fruit rot were collected. This was carried out in October and November of 2022 in the greenhouse at the Colegio de Postgraduados, Montecillo Campus, Texcoco, Mexico, located at coordinates 19°27'37&quot;N 98°54'12&quot;W. The samples were labeled, packaged in paper bags, and transported in a cooler for processing in the Phytosanitary-Phytopathology Laboratory at the Colegio de</p>
				</disp-quote>
				<p>Postgraduados, Montecillo Campus, State of Mexico. The samples were cut into 1 cm square tissue pieces, disinfected with 1% sodium hypochlorite for three minutes, and five tissue pieces from each sample were placed on potato-dextrose-agar (PDA; Bioxón®, Becton Dickinson de México) and in a humid chamber. Isolations were obtained from fruit and leaves. The reisolation of the microorganism associated with symptomatic leaflets and fruit from the humid chamber was done on agar-water (AA; BD Bioxón®, Becton Dickinson de México) following the procedure described by the National Service of Health, Safety, and Agro-food Quality (SENASICA, 2018). The cultures were incubated under natural white light at a laboratory temperature of 25±2 °C for 72 hours until mycelial growth was observed. To purify the isolation, a hyphal tip was transferred to PDA. Monosporic isolations were obtained through serial dilutions, which were plated on AA at 1.6% and incubated for 18 hours; then, a germinated conidium was transferred to PDA medium, and the cultures were incubated at 25±2 °C. The isolates were stored at 15°C in test tubes with slanted PDA, supplemented with sterile mineral oil (Montesinos et al., 2015). Morphological identification was carried out using taxonomic keys reported by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Barnett and Hunter (2006</xref>) and species-specific keys by Palm (1991) and Rossman et al. (2004). Semi-permanent preparations with 50% glycerol on glass slides were made to observe them under a BX51 compound microscope (Olympus, Japan). Mycelial coloration and conidial morphology and morphometry were determined by examining 100 conidia per isolate at 14 days after plating.</p>
				<p>For the pathogenicity tests, inoculations were performed on mature strawberry fruits that were uniform in size and color, as well as on strawberry seedlings of the <italic>Aromas</italic> variety. Pathogenicity was assessed on both wounded and non-wounded fruits, which were previously disinfected. Wounds were made using a sterile needle to a depth of 1 cm in each fruit. Five fruits were used per treatment. Inoculation was carried out by immersing the fruits for 3 minutes in a conidial suspension of 2×10<sup>6</sup> conidia mL<sup>−1</sup>, adjusted using a hemocytometer. Control fruits were immersed in sterile distilled water for 3 minutes. The fruits were placed in a plastic dome with sterile wet towels as humid chambers and incubated at 25±2 °C under natural white light. Incidence was evaluated as the percentage of fruits affected by the pathogen, and severity was evaluated as the percentage of tissue affected.</p>
				<p>For the plant tests, seedlings aged 1-2 months, 3-4 months, and older than 4 months were used. They were inoculated by spraying with spore suspensions of 2×10<sup>6</sup> conidia mL<sup>−1</sup>, both foliar and root inoculations. Ten plants were assigned per treatment. Control plants were sprayed with sterile distilled water. The plants were incubated in a growth chamber with a 12-hour light and 12-hour dark photoperiod, at 80% relative humidity, for seven days. Incidence and severity were evaluated every 24 hours up to 20 days after inoculation. Incidence was assessed as the percentage of leaflets affected by the pathogen, and severity was measured using a visual scale with seven severity classes (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>). Asymptomatic plant leaflets were disinfected and incubated in a humid chamber for five days, after which incidence was evaluated. The pathogenicity tests were performed in triplicate. Incidence and severity data were adjusted to a normal distribution, and the Tukey test was applied for mean comparison (P ≤ 0.05).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f8">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Visual scale for evaluating the severity of brown toasted leaf spot on strawberry. Designed by the authors.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24063-gf8.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>For molecular identification, mycelium and conidia were collected to extract genomic DNA, following the method of Ahrens and Seemüller (1992). The ribosomal gene (rDNA) regions of the internal transcribed spacers ITS1 and ITS2 were then amplified by PCR using the universal primers ITS5 and ITS4 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Martin and Rygiewicz, 2005</xref>), using the Sanger method at Macrogen (Korea). The obtained sequences were purified and aligned with sequences deposited in the Gene Bank of the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) based on BLAST searches and literature. Sequences with 100% similarity were aligned in MEGA11 software, version 11.0.13 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Tamura <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>), using the Clustal algorithm, and compared with sequences in GenBank at NCBI, supported by the BLAST tool. The most similar sequences were extracted for phylogenetic analysis, constructing a neighbor-joining tree using the Bootstrap method and the Tajima-Nei model. <italic>Chaetomella raphigera</italic> (accession number MH860747) was used as the outgroup, and the sequences of the isolates were deposited in the NCBI Gene Bank. Symptoms observed on the fruits of strawberry cv. <italic>Aromas</italic> include asymmetric, sunken, wet lesions that are pink in color, without a chlorotic halo on the epicarp. The lesions expand, turning brown with masses of white conidia that turn pink-red and eventually brown on the lesion surface (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>A-B). On the leaves, lesions begin at the margin or apex as brown, asymmetric spots, progressing toward the leaf base, characteristic of &quot;toasted&quot; leaves (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>D-E).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f9">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>A) Fruit with sunken, wet lesions. B) Fruit with brown rot and fungal structures. C) Brown constriction on the flower peduncle. D-E) Leaves with toasted brown edges. F) Healthy leaves.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24063-gf9.gif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>The isolate on PDA medium formed colonies with circular shapes, ranging from regular to irregular, and the presence of white mycelium was minimal to absent (mass-like form) with regular edges. The base color of the colony grew from cinnamon to brown. After 12 days of incubation on PDA medium, the colony edges developed a light to dark brown pigmentation. After 14 days of incubation, sporodochia were observed, forming in concentric circles with a gelatinous appearance, a black base, and disc-shaped to hemispherical structures, ranging from light brown to dark brown, suborbicular, measuring 354 to 658 µm in length and 370 to 688 µm in width. The conidiophores were hyaline, unicellular, cylindrical, and filiform, measuring 17.64 to 48.04 µm in length and 0.83 to</p>
				<p>2.49 µm in width. Conidia were hyaline, aseptate, fusiform, canoe-shaped to allantoid, measuring 5.84 to 10.95 µm in length and 1.29 to 3.63 µm in width. (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>). No sexual stage was observed. These characteristics correspond to those described by Palm (1991) and Rossman (2004) for <italic>Pilidium</italic>, reported as a facultative parasite with symptoms similar to those described by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Debode <italic>et al.</italic> (2011</xref>) and <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Fernández-Ortuño <italic>et al</italic>. (2014</xref>).</p>
				<p>The sequence alignment in the GenBank database (NCBI) showed 100% similarity with <italic>Pilidium concavum</italic> and <italic>P. lythri</italic>. In the phylogenetic tree (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref>), the isolate grouped with the reference isolates of <italic>P. concavum</italic> and <italic>P. lythri</italic>. Additionally, it was confirmed that <italic>P. concavum</italic> is more closely related to <italic>P. pseudoconcavum</italic>, with a support value of 94%. The isolates were registered in the GenBank database with accession numbers OR568456 and OR568457. The presence of <italic>P. concavum</italic> as a pathogen of leaves and fruits has been reported in several countries, including India (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Phatak and Payak, 1965</xref>), Venezuela (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Cedeño <italic>et al.,</italic> 2001</xref>), Poland (Gołębniak and Jarosz, 2003), Brazil (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Lopes <italic>et al</italic>., 2010</xref>), Belgium (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Debode <italic>et al.,</italic> 2011</xref>), China (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Geng <italic>et al.,</italic> 2012</xref>), the USA (Fernández- Ortuño <italic>et al.,</italic> 2014), Iran (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Ayoubi <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>), and Korea (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Park <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>). However, no reports of damage caused by this pathogen had been made in Mexico.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f10">
						<label>Figure 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>A) Sporodochia on strawberry fruit. B) Sporodochia on the underside of the leaf. C-D) Gelatinous colony with conidial mass on PDA medium. E-F) Longitudinal and transverse sections of the sporodochium. G) Hyaline, cylindrical, filiform conidiophores. H) Hyaline, aseptate, allantoid conidia.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24063-gf10.gif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f11">
						<label>Figure 4</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Phylogenetic tree based on Neighbor Joining of the ITS rDNA sequence, showing a phylogenetic affinity of the Mexico isolate (in bold) with <italic>Pilidium concavum</italic> above 95% of the node. Bar scaling 0.02 represents nucleotide substitutions per site.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24063-gf11.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>The taxonomy of this fungus is not well defined and has undergone reclassifications based on recent morphological characteristics and phylogenetic analyses. The genus <italic>Pilidium</italic> of the family <italic>Chaetomellaceae</italic>, class <italic>Leotiomycetes</italic>, was first described as <italic>P. acerinum</italic> (Alb. and Schwein) (Rossman <italic>et al</italic>., 2004). Currently, the recognized species in the genus are <italic>P. acerinum</italic>, <italic>P. lythri</italic> (also known as <italic>P. concavum</italic>), <italic>P. pseudoconcavum</italic>, <italic>P. eucalyptorum</italic>, and <italic>P. septatum</italic> (Rossman <italic>et al</italic>., 2004; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Kirk <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Crous <italic>et a</italic>l., 2013</xref>; 2015). According to Palm (1991) and Rossman <italic>et al</italic>. (2004), <italic>P. concavum</italic> was shown to be related to the anamorph <italic>Hainesia lythri</italic>, <italic>Dacryomyces lythri</italic> (teleomorph <italic>Discohainesia oenotherae</italic>), <italic>Peziza oenotherae</italic>, <italic>Pezizella oenotherae</italic>, and <italic>Sclerotiopsis testudinacea</italic> as morphotypes of the same species, and thus are considered synonyms. However, <italic>Pilidium</italic> is the oldest generic name used and includes several phytopathogenic species. Recently, Rossman (2014) transferred <italic>P. concavum</italic> as a synonym of <italic>P. lythri</italic>, so referring to either name is now considered valid for the same species (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Johnston <italic>et al.,</italic> 2014</xref>).</p>
				<p>In the pathogenicity tests, three days after inoculation, sunken lesions were observed on wounded fruits, ranging in color from opaque pink to brown, with initial white conidial masses that turned pink and eventually brown (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 5</xref>A). The incidence and severity were both 100%. On non-wounded fruits, symptoms with fungal structures appeared on the fifth day after inoculation, with incidence and severity also at 100% (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 5</xref>D). The structures and spores on the symptomatic fruits were morphologically identical to the colonies originally used for inoculum production. The control fruits showed no symptoms of the disease. These tests confirmed that the causal agent of brown rot in strawberry fruit is <italic>P. concavum</italic>, as reported in similar studies by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Debode <italic>et al</italic>. (2011</xref>) and Karimi <italic>et al</italic>. (2016) on strawberry fruit.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f12">
						<label>Figure 5</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Pathogenicity tests on strawberry fruit inoculated with a concentration of 2×10<sup>6</sup> conidia mL<sup>−1</sup> of <italic>Pilidium concavum</italic>.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24063-gf12.gif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>A) Fruit with a wound inoculated with the fungus. B) Wounded fruit showing symptoms 72 hours post-inoculation (hpi). C) Sporodochia of the fungus on the wounded fruit. D) Unwounded fruit inoculated with the fungus. E) Unwounded fruit showing symptoms 96 hours post-inoculation. F) Sporodochia of the fungus on the unwounded fruit. G) Control inoculated with sterile distilled water, showing no symptoms at 96 hours post-inoculation.</p>
				<p>The inoculated seedlings, approximately 1 to 2 months old, showed mild symptoms on new shoots and leaves (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 6</xref>) 20 days after inoculation. Inoculation on leaves showed 50% incidence with 20% severity. Most symptoms were observed on new shoots (new leaves) and senescent mature leaves. In contrast, in the plants inoculated via the roots, the incidence was 40%, and symptoms appeared on senescent leaves and new leaves with 10% severity. Asymptomatic leaflets, after 5 days in a humid chamber, showed orange to brown sporodochia on the leaves (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 7</xref>). Fungal structures were observed in 90% of the leaf- inoculated treatment and 80% of the root-inoculated treatment. No structures were observed on stems or roots, only on leaves. The microorganism was reisolated, and its identity was confirmed through morphological identification. It is inferred that the fungus is a potential pathogen for nursery seedlings. This aligns with reports by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Debode <italic>et al</italic>. (2011</xref>) and <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Fernández-Ortuño <italic>et al</italic>. (2014</xref>), who reported infections in nurseries and transplant batches. The infection was systemic. Plants inoculated through the roots showed structures on the leaves when exposed to a humid chamber, results similar to those obtained by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Lopez <italic>et al.</italic> (2020</xref>), who inoculated <italic>Ilex paraguariensis</italic> plants via roots and observed damage on the leaves. In this study, plants at the fruiting stage showed fruit rot symptoms 6 months after inoculation, suggesting that the inoculum remained latent in the plants and caused damage when conditions became favorable. According to <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Hipol <italic>et al</italic>. (2014</xref>), <italic>P. concavum</italic> is part of the endophytic fungi group, as it belongs to the Leotiomycetes class of the Pezizomycotina subphylum, which includes common endomycorrhizal endophytic fungi. Therefore, it may have the ability to be endophytic in strawberry plants. Inoculation of 3-month-old and older-than-4-month-old strawberry plants did not induce brown rot symptoms on the leaves. However, when these plants developed and fruited 6 months after inoculation, the fruits and flower buds showed symptoms with fungal structures of <italic>P. concavum</italic>.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f13">
						<label>Figure 6</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Strawberry plants (<italic>Fragaria</italic> x <italic>ananassa</italic>) cv. Aromas less than three months old, 15 days post-inoculation (dpi) with a suspension of 2x10<sup>6</sup> conidia per mL of <italic>Pilidium concavum</italic>. A) Inoculated via foliar; B) Inoculated via root routes; C) Control inoculated with sterile distilled water.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24063-gf13.gif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f14">
						<label>Figure 7</label>
						<caption>
							<title>A) Asymptomatic strawberry leaves after 28 days post-inoculation (dpi), placed in a humid chamber. B) Formation of sporodochia on the leaves after 5 days in the humid chamber.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT24063-gf14.gif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p><italic>P. concavum</italic> is a fungus with a wide host range. Its importance lies in its ability to affect economically valuable crops, especially olive fruit (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Arzanlou <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>), <italic>Ilex paraguariensis</italic> (López <italic>et al</italic>., 2020), grape clusters (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Aguin <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>), and strawberry (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Debode <italic>et al.,</italic> 2011</xref>). Thus, the evolution of this pathogen, its geographical distribution, host range, and its interaction with plants have increasing relevance in the context of global climate change. This phenomenon affects plant communities in all aspects, from growth and reproduction to resistance and susceptibility (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Zhao <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>; Tito <italic>et al</italic>., 2018). Additionally, climate change alters the population and behavior of microorganisms, modifying their interactions with hosts (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Cohen and Leach, 2020</xref>). This may lead to the adoption of new invasion strategies through changes in the virulence system, which could, in turn, compromise plant resistance (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Cheng <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>). As a result, plant-microorganism interactions may shift from a mutualistic to a pathogenic association, or vice versa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">González <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). This study reports <italic>Pilidium concavum</italic> as the species responsible for brown toasted rot in strawberry fruits and leaves in Montecillo, Texcoco, State of Mexico. Morphological characteristics, pathogenicity tests, molecular characterization, and a literature review showed no genetic diversity between the isolates from leaflets and fruits, although further studies are needed, along with monitoring regions where strawberries are cultivated. Symptoms were more frequently associated with fruits, which contributed to the difficulties in replicating symptoms in leaves. Additional research is needed to clarify the origin of the new pathogen, its disease cycle, and to develop integrated management strategies for the disease in nurseries and postharvest.</p>
			</sec>
		</body>
		<back>
			<ack>
				<title>Acknowledgments</title>
				<p>The authors would like to thank the Colegio de Postgraduados, the Phytosanitary-Phytopathology program, and CONACYT for the scholarship provided.</p>
			</ack>
		</back>
	</sub-article>
</article>