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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">rmfi</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Revista mexicana de fitopatología</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Rev. mex. fitopatol</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">0185-3309</issn>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2007-8080</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedad Mexicana de Fitopatología A.C.</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.18781/R.MEX.FIT.2402-7</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="other">00004</article-id> 
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artículos Científicos</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Toxicidad de fungicidas de contacto en cuatro especies de <italic>Trichoderma</italic>, un enfoque de compatibilidad <italic>in vitro</italic></article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Parraguirre-Lezama</surname>
						<given-names>Conrado</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Romero-Arenas</surname>
						<given-names>Omar</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1">*</xref>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Cruz Coronel</surname>
						<given-names>Alba</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Mauricio-Gutiérrez</surname>
						<given-names>Amparo</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Contreras-Paredes</surname>
						<given-names>Carlos A</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Rivera Tapia</surname>
						<given-names>Antonio</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Centro de Agroecología, Instituto de Ciencias, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Edificio VAL 1, Km 1,7 Carretera a San Baltazar Tetela, San Pedro Zacachimalpa, Puebla 72960, México; </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla</institution>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Posgrado en Manejo Sostenible de Agroecosistemas, Instituto de Ciencias, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, México; </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla</institution>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>3</label>
				<institution content-type="original">ardín Botánico Universitario, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla Colonia San Manuel, 72590 Puebla, México; </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla</institution>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4">
				<label>4</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Centro de Investigaciones en Ciencias Microbiológicas. Instituto de Ciencias (ICUAP), Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla (BUAP) , México; </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla (BUAP)</institution>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1"><bold>
 <italic>*Autor de correspondencia</italic>:</bold> Omar Romero-Arenas <email>biol.ora@hotmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>17</day>
				<month>03</month>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<season>Jan-Apr</season>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>43</volume>
			<issue>1</issue>
			<elocation-id>RMEXFIT54027</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>25</day>
					<month>02</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>13</day>
					<month>12</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
					<license-p>Este es un artículo publicado en acceso abierto bajo una licencia Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumen</title>
				<p> </p>
				<sec>
					<title>Objetivo/Antecedentes. </title>
					<p>La transición hacia prácticas agrícolas responsables es fundamental para promover la salud de los agroecosistemas y garantizar la seguri- dad alimentaria. Impulsar investigaciones integrales que combinen métodos quími- cos y biológicos representa un avance significativo en el manejo de fitopatógenos, es decir, esta aproximación novedosa se basa en la premisa de que la acción conjun- ta entre fungicidas y un agente antagónico como <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp., pueden ofrecer una protección robusta en comparación con enfoques individuales. El objetivo del estudio es investigar la resistencia y compatibilidad <italic>in vitro</italic> de cuatro especies de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> frente a tres fungicidas ampliamente utilizados en México.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Materiales y Métodos. </title>
					<p>Se empleó la técnica de intoxicación controlada en medio PDA bajo condiciones controladas con tres concentraciones (450, 900 y 1350 mg L<sup>−1</sup>), pare el caso de los ingredientes activos Captan y Clorotalonil, para Mancozeb se utilizaron 600, 1200 y 1800 mg L<sup>−1</sup>. La compatibilidad se determinó en relación con el grupo control utilizando el software estadístico SPSS Statistics versión 26 para el entorno operativo Windows.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Resultados. </title>
					<p>El estudio reveló que las cepas de <italic>T. harzianum</italic>, <italic>T. hamatum</italic>, <italic>T. ko- ningiopsis</italic> y <italic>T</italic>. <italic>asperellum</italic> exhibieron una compatibilidad global del 60.04% para los ingredientes activos evaluados, siendo el fungicida Captán 50<sup>®</sup> el que demostró el mayor porcentaje de compatibilidad (79.87%) en las concentraciones de 450, 900 y 1350 mg L<sup>-1</sup>. <italic>T. harzianum</italic> mostró mayor tolerancia al ingrediente activo Clorotalonil en la concentración de 450 mg L⁻¹, sin embargo, a concentraciones más altas demostró mayor toxicidad, siendo <italic>T. koningiopsis</italic> la que exhibió la menor resistencia en sus tres concentraciones evaluadas.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Conclusión. </title>
					<p>Los tratamientos con diferentes concentraciones de los fungicidas Captan, Mancozeb y Clorotalonil evidenciaron una marcada variabilidad en tér- minos de prevalencia y toxicidad hacia las especies evaluadas de <italic>Trichoderma in vitro</italic>. Este enfoque permite diseñar estrategias de manejo integrado minimizando la dependencia de productos químicos y promoviendo la compatibilidad entre agentes biológicos y fungicidas.</p>
				</sec>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
				<title>Palabras clave:</title>
				<kwd>Hongos</kwd>
				<kwd>fitopatógenos</kwd>
				<kwd>toxicidad</kwd>
				<kwd>resistencia.</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="6"/>
				<table-count count="6"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="60"/>
				<page-count count="0"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introducción</title>
			<p>En el escenario actual de la agricultura, el control de patógenos asociados a enfermedades en cultivos se enfrenta a desafíos importantes debido al uso frecuente y extensivo de insumos industriales, los llamados agrotóxicos (Hensh <italic>et al</italic>., 2022) que han aumentado significativamente en los últimos años para incrementar la productividad de los sistemas agrícolas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Zhang <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Balaska <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). Sin embargo, la sobreexposición ha llevado al desarrollo de resistencia, reduciendo su efectividad y generando preocupaciones ambientales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Lamichhane <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Sharma <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Andrade-Hoyos <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>).</p>
			<p>En México, la implementación de los esquemas tecnológicos de la revolución verde durante la segunda mitad del siglo XX, introdujo prácticas agrícolas convencionales, así como el uso extendido de fertilizantes y pesticidas para la producción agrícola (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Rivera <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>), así mismo, se estima que alrededor de 900 pesticidas son empleados por los agricultores mexicanos en diversos cultivos.</p>
			<p>Algunos pesticidas están clasificados como altamente peligrosos, según la lista elaborada por Pesticide Action Network International (PAN, 2016), implicando severos efectos ecológicos e impactos negativos en la salud de la población local y consumidores (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Muhie <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Rosas-Sánchez <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). De acuerdo con los datos disponibles, actualmente las regiones de México con mayor uso de pesticidas son Sinaloa, Chiapas, Veracruz, Jalisco, Nayarit, Colima, Sonora, Baja California, Tamaulipas, Michoacán, Tabasco, Estado de México, Oaxaca y Puebla, en donde se aplica el 80 % del total de pesticidas utilizados en el país. Además, se han reportado sitios contaminados con 28 pesticidas en 15 estados de la república mexicana de acuerdo con datos reportados por la Secretaría de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Ortiz-Hernández <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>; SEMARNAT, 2020).</p>
			<p>Año tras año, cantidades de fungicidas varían considerablemente, oscilando entre 395 y 13.16 toneladas; reflejando la extensa dependencia del país a estos productos para la protección de los cultivos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">García-Gutiérrez <italic>et al</italic>., 2012</xref>). Además, no existe información pública disponible sobre el nombre, ingrediente activo y cantidad de cada uno de los fungicidas autorizado que se aplica a nivel nacional (Cruz <italic>et al</italic>., 2022). Según García <italic>et al</italic>. (2018) los ingredientes activos como Captan, Mancozeb y Clorotalonil, pueden identificarse como los de mayor aplicación en el país.</p>
			<p>La exploración de estrategias agrícolas que buscan potenciar la eficacia en el control de fitopatógenos para la producción de alimentos, ha llevado a la posibilidad de generar sinergias beneficiosas mediante la combinación de fungicidas y antagonistas biológicos como <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp. (Abd <italic>et al</italic>., 2019). Esta aproximación novedosa se basa en la premisa de que la acción conjunta de fungicidas y <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp., puede ofrecer una protección robusta contra fitopatógenos en comparación con enfoques individuales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Yao <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>; Parraguirre <italic>et al</italic>., 2023). La investigación en este ámbito, busca comprender y optimizar las interacciones para desarrollar prácticas agrícolas efectivas y respetuosas con el ambiente; marcando un paso significativo hacia la integración de métodos químicos y biológicos en la gestión de fitopatógenos en la agricultura (Terrero-Yépez <italic>et al</italic>., 2028; RuanoRosa <italic>et al</italic>., 2018; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">Zin <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Rodríguez <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>).</p>
			<p>El énfasis en la integración de métodos químicos y biológicos, como el caso del uso del género <italic>Trichoderma</italic>, refleja un cambio en el manejo integrado para la agricultura, reconociendo la importancia de equilibrar la eficacia de los tratamientos con la preservación de la biodiversidad y la sostenibilidad agrícola. Al adoptar esta premisa, los agricultores pueden no solo combatir eficientemente diferentes tipos de fitopatógenos, sino también, promover la salud a largo plazo de los agroecosistemas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Tyśkiewicz <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>). Esta transición hacia prácticas agrícolas que minimizar los impactos negativos de los fungicidas, no solo representa un paso significativo en la dirección correcta, sino que también sienta las bases para un futuro resiliente y armonioso para la producción de alimentos sanos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Mishenin <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). En este contexto, surge la necesidad de explorar soluciones innovadoras, es por ello que, el presente estudio tuvo el objetivo de investigar la resistencia y compatibilidad <italic>in vitro</italic> de cuatro especies de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> en tres ingredientes activos de amplio espectro utilizados en México.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="materials|methods">
			<title>Materiales y Métodos</title>
			<p>El estudio se desarrolló en el Laboratorio 204 de Fitopatología del Centro de Agroecología Edificio VAL 1 del Instituto de Ciencias de la Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla.</p>
			<p>Material biológico. Las cepas utilizadas fueron previamente caracterizadas e identificadas taxonómica y molecularmente (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Andrade-Hoyos <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). Para este estudio se utilizó <italic>Trichoderma harzianum</italic> (T-H4) colectada en Tetela de Ocampo, Puebla, <italic>Trichoderma koningiopsis</italic> (T-K11) colectada en Guadalajara, Jalisco y <italic>Trichoderma asperellum</italic> (T-AS1) colectada en Hidalgo, todas ellas aisladas de la rizósfera de aguacate (<italic>Persea americana</italic>), la cepa <italic>Trichoderma hamatum</italic> (TA12) fue colectada en Tlaltipa, Veracruz, aislada de la rizósfera de canela (<italic>Verum de cinnamomun</italic>). Las secuencias se encuentran depositadas en la base de datos del Centro Nacional de Información Biológica (NCBI) con los números de Accesión: MK779064, MK791648, MK778890 y MK791650, respectivamente. Así mismo, se encuentran resguardadas en el Laboratorio de Fitopatología 204 del Centro de Agroecología del Instituto de Ciencias, BUAP.</p>
			<p>Caracterización del crecimiento en condiciones estándar. Se utilizaron fragmentos de 10 días de edad de 5 mm de diámetro con crecimiento activo de las cepas de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> desarrollas en medio PDA (Bioxon, Becton Dickinson, Ciudad de México, México). Estos fragmentos se colocaron individualmente en cajas Petri (9 cm de diámetro) que contenían 20 mL de PDA (Bioxon, Becton Dickinson, Ciudad de México, México) y se incubaron a 28 ± 2 °C durante 10 días en la oscuridad. Cada 12 h, se midió el crecimiento micelial con un Vernier digital (CD-6 Mitutoyo, Naucalpan de Juárez, México) obteniendo el promedio de cuatro mediciones por unidad experimental (4 cajas Petri). El diámetro (d) se calculó usando la fórmula: d=2×r (Mannerucci <italic>et al</italic>., 2023). El experimento se repitió por duplicado en un diseño estadístico completamente al azar, con cuatro repeticiones para cada tratamiento.</p>
			<p><bold>Ensayo de resistencia y tolerancia a fungicidas <italic>in vitro</italic>.</bold> Se empleó la técnica de intoxicación controlada descrita por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Azza <italic>et al</italic>. (2021</xref>), que consistió en colocar discos de 5 mm de diámetro con micelio activo de 10 días de edad de las cepas T-H4 de <italic>T. harzianum</italic>, T-K11 de <italic>T. koningiopsis</italic>, T-AS1 de <italic>T. asperellum</italic> y T-A12 de <italic>T. hamatum</italic>. Se preparó medio de cultivo PDA (Bioxon, Becton Dickinson, Ciudad de México, México) siguiendo las instrucciones del fabricante, adicionalmente se suplementó con algún ingrediente activo de tres marcas de fungicidas protectores (Captán 50<sup>®</sup>, Mancosol 80<sup>®</sup>, Talonil 75<sup>®</sup>) a tres concentraciones diferentes, expresada en mg L<sup>-1</sup>: (a) bajo (la mitad de la dosis comercial recomendada); (b) recomendado (dosis comercial autorizada por el fabricante) y; (c) alto (duplicar la dosis comercial recomendada) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Cuadro 1</xref>).</p>
			<p>Finalmente, se colocaron discos de 5 mm de diámetro obtenidos de cultivos de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> de 10 días de edad desarrollados en medio PDA (Bioxon, Becton Dickinson, Ciudad de México, México) sobre cajas de Petri de 9 cm de diámetro</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t1">
					<label>Cuadro 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Fungicidas utilizados a diferentes concentraciones evaluadas.</title>
					</caption>
					<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th rowspan="2" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Fungicida (Nombre comercial)</th>
								<th rowspan="2" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Ingrediente activo</th>
								<th rowspan="2" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Fórmula molecular</th>
								<th colspan="3" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Concentración (mg L−1)</th>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Bajo</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Recomendado</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Alto</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td>Captán 50®</td>
								<td align="left">Captan</td>
								<td>C9H8Cl3NO2S</td>
								<td align="left">450</td>
								<td>900</td>
								<td>1350</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Mancosol 80®</td>
								<td align="right">Mancozeb</td>
								<td>C4H6MnN2S4</td>
								<td align="left">600</td>
								<td>1200</td>
								<td>1800</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Talonil 75®</td>
								<td align="right">Clorotalonil</td>
								<td>C8Cl4N2</td>
								<td align="left">450</td>
								<td>900</td>
								<td>1350</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>que contenían 20 mL de PDA con los diferentes tratamientos (fungicidas) por triplicado. Las placas fueron incubadas a 28 °C ± 2 con un fotoperíodo de 12 h durante 10 días para inducir la esporulación (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Escudero-Leyva <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>). Como grupo de control, se utilizó medio PDA siguiendo las instrucciones del fabricante, sin la adición de fungicidas.</p>
			<p>La evaluación concluyó cuando el micelio del grupo control de cada cepa evaluada cubrió completamente la caja de Petri. Para calcular el porcentaje de inhibición del crecimiento miceliar, se aplicó la fórmula PI= [(X-Y)/X] ×100 propuesta por Sundar <italic>et al.,</italic> (1995), dónde: PI= Porcentaje de inhibición, X=Diámetro de la colonia en placa control y Y=Diámetro de la colonia en placa tratada.</p>
			<p>Para evaluar el efecto sobre la capacidad de formación de conidios (CFC) de cada uno de los ingredientes activos de los fungicidas a diferentes concentraciones, se empleó la técnica descrita por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Castellanos <italic>et al</italic>. (2015</xref>) con algunas modificaciones. Se tomaron placas de 10 días de crecimiento de cada una de las cepas de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> provenientes de los medios con diferentes fungicidas y el grupo control; en ellas se colocaron 9 mL de agua estéril con 1 mL de Tween 80 al 0.01 % (el Tween 80 se utilizó para reducir la tensión superficial del agua y permite una distribución homogénea de los conidios para realizar un conteo preciso bajo el microscopio óptico). Posteriormente, la suspensión de conidios obtenidos se traspasó a tubos de ensayo de 160 × 20 mm y se aforó a 20 mL de volumen final con agua estéril en un matraz volumétrico. Cada tubo se situó en el agitador Vortex durante 30 segundos y, luego se procedió al conteo de conidios (conidios mL<sup>−1</sup>) en la cámara de Neubauer. Adicionalmente, se calculó el porcentaje de esporulación (ESP) para cada tratamiento de fungicida en relación con el grupo control.</p>
			<p><bold>Ensayo de compatibilidad a fungicidas <italic>in vitro</italic>
</bold> . Se consideraron los dos indicadores previamente evaluados: el porcentaje de inhibición del crecimiento micelial y el porcentaje de esporulación a los 10 días, mediante la aplicación de la fórmula C= [20(CV)+80(ESP)]/100, establecida por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Alves <italic>et al</italic>. (1998</xref>), donde: C=Valor corregido para la clasificación del producto, CV=Porcentaje de inhibición del crecimiento micelial del tratamiento con relación al grupo control y ESP=Porcentaje de</p>
			<p>esporulación del tratamiento con relación al testigo. Posteriormente, la compatibilidad de cada ingrediente activo se determinó mediante los valores de C, siguiendo la escala propuesta por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Alves <italic>et al</italic>. (1998</xref>): A) Muy tóxico de 0 a 30 %; B) Tóxico de 31 a 45 %, C) Moderadamente tóxico de 46 a 60% y D) Compatible cuando es mayor de 60 %. Este enfoque proporciona una medida cuantitativa de la compatibilidad de cada plaguicida con las cepas de <italic>Trichoderma,</italic> permitiendo una evaluación objetiva de los efectos observados.</p>
			<p>Análisis estadístico. Los datos recopilados fueron sometidos a un modelo lineal multivariente con análisis factorial completo (MANOVA) utilizando el software estadístico SPSS Statistics versión 26 para el entorno operativo Windows. Las variables de respuesta fueron el diámetro de crecimiento micelial, la tasa de esporulación y el porcentaje de inhibición del crecimiento micelial, siendo los factores fijos el ingrediente activo, las diferentes concentraciones evaluadas y las cuatro especies de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> sometidas en este estudio. Se aplicó la prueba de esfericidad de Bartlet para evaluar la homogeneidad de las covarianzas, seguida de una prueba de comparación de medias de Tukey-Kramer con un nivel de significancia <italic>p</italic> ≤ 0.05.</p>
			<p>Las variables porcentaje de inhibición de crecimiento micelial (PI) y el porcentaje de esporulación (ESP) se sometieron a una transformación mediante la función arcocoseno angular (√x + 1). Posteriormente, la compatibilidad (C) fue analizada mediante un análisis de componentes principales (PCA) y un meta-análisis utilizando el paquete estadístico Jamovi Statistics versión 2.0 para Windows. Los resultados del meta-análisis se presentaron en términos de la diferencia de medias acompañada de su intervalo de confianza (IC) al 95 %. Además, se incluyeron los valores de la heterogeneidad (I<sup>2</sup>) y significancia estadística.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="results">
			<title>Resultados</title>
			<p>Los resultados obtenidos para análisis de Varianza Multivariada tipo III, revelan que las variables independientes, como los ingredientes activos, las especies de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp., y las diferentes concentraciones de cada uno de los ingredientes activos, tienen un efecto altamente significativo (<italic>p</italic> =0.0001) sobre las variables porcentaje de índice de crecimiento (PI %), diámetro de la colonia y la concentración de conidios por mililitro, además las interacciones entre ingredientes activos y especies, así como entre ingredientes activos y concentración, también mostraron ser estadísticamente significativas, lo que indica que la eficacia de los ingredientes activos puede variar dependiendo de la especie de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp., y la concentración utilizada. Esto indica que la eficacia de los ingredientes activos no es uniforme, sino que varía considerablemente dependiendo de la especie de <italic>Tricho-</italic></p>
			<p><italic>derma</italic> involucrada y la concentración aplicada, lo que sugiere que algunas especies pueden presentar resistencia o sensibilidad a ciertos compuestos químicos, lo que es crucial para diseñar estrategias de manejo integradas y específicas.</p>
			<p>El modelo estadístico empleado es robusto, explicando entre el 92.2 y el 94% de la variabilidad en los datos, como lo reflejan los valores de R<sup>2</sup> ajustado. Esto sugiere que las variables evaluadas son determinantes clave en la respuesta observada en <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp., y refuerza la importancia de considerar múltiples factores y sus interacciones en estudios de eficacia de agentes biocontroladores (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Cuadro 2</xref>). Estos hallazgos proporcionan una base sólida para futuras investigaciones y aplicaciones prácticas en el manejo de enfermedades agrícolas. Esto es especialmente importante en el contexto del manejo integrado de enfermedades, donde la selección precisa de ingredientes activos en combinación con especies y concentraciones adecuadas puede optimizar los resultados y minimizar los efectos adversos en el agroecosistema.</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t2">
					<label>Cuadro 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Análisis multifactorial de varianza (MANOVA) parcial para los efectos de los Ingredientes activos, especies (Trichoderma spp.) y concentración sobre el porcentaje de inhibición de crecimiento micelal (PI), diámetro (mm) y capacidad de formación de conidios (CFC).</title>
					</caption>
					<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Origen</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Variable dependiente</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Tipo III de suma de cuadrados</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">gL</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Media cuadrática</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">F</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Sig.</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left">X1= PI (%)</td>
								<td align="right">123455.289a</td>
								<td>39</td>
								<td align="left">3165.52</td>
								<td>64.664</td>
								<td>&lt;0.001</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Modelo corregidox</td>
								<td align="left">X2= Diámetro (mm)</td>
								<td align="right">95923.155b</td>
								<td>39</td>
								<td align="left">2459.56</td>
								<td>48.886</td>
								<td>&lt;0.001</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left">X = CFC (Conidios mL-1) 3</td>
								<td align="right">245 E+05c</td>
								<td>39</td>
								<td align="left">6.30E+23</td>
								<td>61.986</td>
								<td>&lt;0.001</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td rowspan="3">Ingredientes activos * Especies * Concentración ny</td>
								<td>X1</td>
								<td align="right">4048.447</td>
								<td>12</td>
								<td align="left">337.371</td>
								<td>6.892</td>
								<td>&lt;0.001</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>X2</td>
								<td align="right">4.1764E+23</td>
								<td>12</td>
								<td align="left">3.4803E+22</td>
								<td>2.702</td>
								<td>&lt;0.001</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>X3</td>
								<td align="right">2270.496</td>
								<td>12</td>
								<td align="left">189.208</td>
								<td>4.768</td>
								<td>&lt;0.003</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN1">
							<label><sup>x</sup></label>
							<p>Diseño: Intersección + Ingredientes activos + Especies (<italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp.) + Concentración n; <sup>y</sup>Ingredientes activos * Especies (<italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp) * Concentración n; Concentración n: R<sup>2</sup> = 0.955 (R<sup>2</sup> ajustado = 0.94) ; Diámetro: R<sup>2</sup> = 0.95 (R<sup>2</sup> ajustado = 0.94) ; CFC: R<sup>2</sup> = 0.941 (R<sup>2</sup> ajustado = 0.92) ; Significancia alpha = 0.05.</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>Se observa una clara disminución en el diámetro de las colonias fúngicas con el incremento de la concentración de los ingredientes activos, especialmente en las concentraciones altas de Mancozeb (1800 mg L⁻¹) y Clorotalonil (1350 mg L⁻¹). En términos de esporulación, los resultados indican que el grupo control permitió una alta concentración de conidios en todas las especies de <italic>Trichoderma</italic>, con valores superiores a 1.4E+12 conidios mL⁻¹ (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Cuadro 3</xref>).</p>
			<p>El tratamiento DTH0, utilizado como control, exhibe un diámetro alto en <italic>T. hamatum</italic> en comparación con otros tratamientos, mientras que la capacidad de esporulación es significativamente mayor en este mismo tratamiento en comparación con otras especies de <italic>Trichoderma</italic>. <italic>T. harzianum</italic> presentó un diámetro de 22.31</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t3">
					<label>Cuadro 3</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Evaluación de cuatro especies de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> a diferentes concentraciones de fungicidas en condiciones controladas.</title>
					</caption>
					<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Código</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Ingrediente activo</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Especies</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Concentración (mg L−1)</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Diámetro±DE (mm) X</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">CFC±DE (conidios mL-1) X</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTHR0</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left">T. harzianum</td>
								<td>-</td>
								<td>90.00±0.01a</td>
								<td>1.66E+12±3.59E+07a</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTK0</td>
								<td>Agua</td>
								<td align="left">T. konigiopsis</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td>89.99±0.01a</td>
								<td>1.47E+12±2.46E+07a</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTH0</td>
								<td>(Control)</td>
								<td align="left">T. hamatum</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td>88.95±0.01a</td>
								<td>1.41E+12±1.50E+07a</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTA0</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left">T. asperellum</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td>89.17±0.01a</td>
								<td>1.48E+12±1.13E+07a</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTHR1</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left">T. harzianum</td>
								<td>450</td>
								<td>42.38±1.30cdefg</td>
								<td>4.76E+11±2.14E+11bcdef</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTHR2</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td>900</td>
								<td>37.88±1.30cdefghi</td>
								<td>3.49E+11±1.56E+11bcdefg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTHR3</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td>1350</td>
								<td>35.50±0.58cdefghi</td>
								<td>2.26E+11±3.38E+10cdefg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTK1</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left">T. konigiopsis</td>
								<td>450</td>
								<td>43.88±9.99cdef</td>
								<td>5.48E+11±5.70E+10bcd</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTK2</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td>900</td>
								<td>31.13±14.75defghij</td>
								<td>3.96E+11±1.34E+11 bcdefg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTK3</td>
								<td>Captan</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td>1350</td>
								<td>25.19±12.60hijkl</td>
								<td>1.85E+11±5.45E+10defg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTH01</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left">T. hamatum</td>
								<td>450</td>
								<td>39.88±1.65cdefgh</td>
								<td>3.54E+11±3.90E+10bcdefg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTH02</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td>900</td>
								<td>34.75±5.04cdefghi</td>
								<td>3.24E+11±2.40E+11cdefg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTH03</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td>1350</td>
								<td>27.50±5.26fghijk</td>
								<td>2.08E+11±1.04E+10defg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTA1</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left">T. asperellum</td>
								<td>450</td>
								<td>49.50±15.22c</td>
								<td>4.15E+11±9.46E+10bcdefg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTA2</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td>900</td>
								<td>40.75±15.50cdefgh</td>
								<td>3.98E+11±3.07E+10bcdefg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTA3</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td>1350</td>
								<td>35.75±14.19cdefghi</td>
								<td>2.74E+11±1.09E+10cdefg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTHR4</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left">T. harzianum</td>
								<td>600</td>
								<td>29.75±4.31efghij</td>
								<td>1.28E+11±3.18E+10efg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTHR5</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td>1200</td>
								<td>26.56±4.97ghijkl</td>
								<td>9.00E+10±1.06E+10fg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTHR6</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td>1800</td>
								<td>22.31±1.95ijklm</td>
								<td>5.63E+10±1.30E+10g</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTK4</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left">T. konigiopsis</td>
								<td>600</td>
								<td>47.13±9.55cd</td>
								<td>3.47E+11±1.16E+11bcdefg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTK5</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td>1200</td>
								<td>45.81±2.12cde</td>
								<td>1.13E+11±6.29E+10efg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTK6</td>
								<td>Mancozeb</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td>1800</td>
								<td>41.44±2.88cdefgh</td>
								<td>1.13E+11±6.29E+10efg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTH4</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left">T. hamatum</td>
								<td>600</td>
								<td>36.00±2.71cdefghi</td>
								<td>3.21E+11±7.92E+10defg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTH5</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td>1200</td>
								<td>34.81±5.32cdefghi</td>
								<td>1.58E+11±1.01E+11defg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTH6</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td>1800</td>
								<td>10.75±0.96lmn</td>
								<td>1.13E+11±6.29E+10efg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTA4</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left">T. asperellum</td>
								<td>600</td>
								<td>66.50±12.12b</td>
								<td>2.94E+11±1.86E+11cdefg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTA5</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td>1200</td>
								<td>30.50±1.34efghij</td>
								<td>5.25E+10±6.12E+09g</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTA6</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td>1800</td>
								<td>11.00±0.82klmn</td>
								<td>2.06E+10±1.55E+10g</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTHR7</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left">T. harzianum</td>
								<td>450</td>
								<td>12.50±3.42klmn</td>
								<td>3.84E+11±8.23E+10bcdefg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTHR8</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td>900</td>
								<td>11.75±1.71klmn</td>
								<td>2.84E+11±1.01E+10cdefg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTHR9</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td>1350</td>
								<td>10.50±1.29lmn</td>
								<td>2.59E+11±9.93E+10cdefg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTK7</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left">T. konigiopsis</td>
								<td>450</td>
								<td>17.00±2.58jklmn</td>
								<td>5.48E+11±6.06E+10 bcd</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTK8</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td>900</td>
								<td>14.75±2.50jklmn</td>
								<td>5.03E+11 ± 6.93E+10bcde</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTK9</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td>1350</td>
								<td>11.50±1.91klmn</td>
								<td>4.26E+11±4.98E+10bcdefg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTH7</td>
								<td>Clorotalonil</td>
								<td align="left">T. hamatum</td>
								<td>450</td>
								<td>1.50±0.58n</td>
								<td>2.00E+11±2.58E+04defg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTH8</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td>900</td>
								<td>1.25±0.50n</td>
								<td>2.00E+11±2.58E+04defg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTH09</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td>1350</td>
								<td align="left">1.50 ± 0.58n</td>
								<td>1.13E+11 ± 6.29E+10efg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTA7</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left">T. asperellum</td>
								<td>450</td>
								<td>12.50±1.29klmn</td>
								<td>7.39E+11 ± 1.05E+11b</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTA8</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td>900</td>
								<td>6.50±2.38mn</td>
								<td>6.24E+11 ± 3.75E+10bc</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="right">DTA9</td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td align="left"> </td>
								<td>1350</td>
								<td>1.25±0.50n</td>
								<td>1.25E+11 ± 6.45E+10efg</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN2">
							<label><sup>x</sup></label>
							<p>Letras iguales indican que no hay diferencias estadísticamente significativas (<italic>p</italic> &lt;0.05) entre los tratamientos. DE: desviación estándar.</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>mm a 1800 mg L⁻¹ en el ingrediente activo Mancozeb y 10.50 mm a 1350 mg L⁻¹ en Clorotalonil.</p>
			<p>El ingrediente activo Captan mostró una reducción moderada en el diámetro, siendo menos efectivo a bajas concentraciones (450 mg L⁻¹) en comparación con los ingredientes Mancozeb y Clorotalonil. Sin embargo, la aplicación del ingrediente Clorotalonil mostró un fuerte impacto negativo sobre la capacidad de formación de conidios, especialmente en las especies <italic>T. hamatum</italic> y <italic>T. asperellum</italic>, que llegaron a tan solo 1.13E+11 y 1.25E+11 conidios mL⁻¹ respectivamente en la concentración de 1350 mg L⁻¹.</p>
			<p>Par el ingrediente activo Mancozeb en concentraciones de 600 mg L⁻<sup>1</sup>, logró mantener alta la esporulación en comparación con Clorotalonil, pero aun así mostró una reducción considerable respecto al control (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Cuadro 3</xref>).</p>
			<p>La <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref> revela el porcentaje de inhibición del crecimiento micelial (PI) de diferentes especies de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> a los ingredientes activos Captan, Mancozeb y</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f1">
					<label>Figura 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Porcentaje de inhibición del crecimiento micelial (PI) de cuatro especies de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> a diferentes concentraciones de fungicidas en condiciones controladas. *Letras iguales indican que no hay diferencias estadísticamente significativas (<italic>p</italic> &lt;0.05) entre los tratamientos.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT54027-gf1.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>Clorotalonil. Los tratamientos que muestran un rango de porcentaje de inhibición entre el 40 y 60% y mayor crecimiento micelial a los diferentes ingredientes activos de los fungicidas son DTH1-3, DTK1, DTHR1-2, al ingrediente activo Captan en las tres concentraciones evaluadas, seguido de DTA4-6 y DTHR1 para Mancozeb a la concentración 600 mg L<sup>−1</sup>.</p>
			<p>Estos resultados sugieren una capacidad moderada para el fenómeno estudiado en comparación con el al ingrediente activo Clorotalonil, que presenta una mayor eficacia para inhibir el crecimiento micelial de las diferentes especies de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp., evaluadas. Clorotalonil muestra ser efectivo en inhibir el crecimiento micelial en sus tres concentraciones evaluadas.</p>
			<p>Estos hallazgos resaltan la importancia de la concentración de fungicida en la regulación del porcentaje de inhibición (PI) de las especies de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> estudiadas. Además, revelan diferencias en la respuesta de cada especie a los diferentes ingredientes químicos de cada fungicida, lo que subraya la necesidad de considerar la variabilidad intraespecífica de las especies de <italic>Trichoderma</italic>, al diseñar estrategias de control, resistencia y compatibilidad hacia la transición de prácticas agrícolas para el combate de fitopatógenos.</p>
			<p>En el presente estudio, la compatibilidad de diferentes concentraciones de fungicidas con los antagonistas aislados nativos de la rizósfera de aguacate reveló variaciones altamente significativas (<italic>p</italic> = 0.0001). Se observó una reducción de compatibilidad con el incremento en la concentración de los diferentes fungicidas, lo cual sugiere una potencial tolerancia diferencial de las especies de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> evaluadas. El análisis de componentes principales mostró una agrupación de tratamientos de acuerdo con la escala establecida por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Alves <italic>et al</italic>. (1998</xref>), predefinida de compatibilidad y toxicidad específicas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>).</p>
			<p>Este análisis reveló que el 93.1% de la variabilidad puede ser explicada por dos componentes principales: los ejes están etiquetados como “Dim 1 (73.9%)” y “Dim 2 (19.2%)”, indicando las dimensiones del análisis principal. Además, se destacó que aproximadamente el 65% de los tratamientos fueron clasificados como compatibles, seguidos por aquellos moderadamente compatibles (15.6%) y los considerados muy tóxicos (13.1%). La categoría de clasificación toxico presentó el menor porcentaje de distribución de grupos, representando solo el 6.3% de los casos analizados.</p>
			<p>Finalmente, se realizó un meta-análisis utilizando la diferencia de la x̄ y la SD de los diferentes tratamientos K= 40 como medida de resultado en el análisis. Se observaron diferencias de medias de (T) que oscilaron entre 1.38 y 99.98, con la gran mayoría de las estimaciones siendo positivas (100%). La diferencia media promedio estimada, basada en el modelo de efectos aleatorios, fue de μ^= 60.04 (IC del 95%: 49.00 a 71.08). Este valor promedio difirió significativamente de cero (t (39) = 10.99, <italic>p</italic> &lt;0.0001), indicando una notable tendencia en los resultados.</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f2">
					<label>Figura 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Análisis de componentes principales explicó el 93.1% de la varianza en dos componentes respecto a la compatibilidad de cuatro cepas nativas de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> en diferentes concentraciones de fungicidas de acuerdo con una escala establecida por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Alves <italic>et al</italic>. (1998</xref>).</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT54027-gf2.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>Además, la prueba de heterogeneidad reveló resultados significativos (Q (39) = 411015.47, <italic>p</italic> &lt;0.0001, tau²= 1184.30, i² = 100%), lo que sugiere una variabilidad sustancial entre los estudios incluidos en el análisis, brindando una comprensión detallada de la variabilidad de los efectos observados con un intervalo de predicción del 95% (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>).</p>
			<p>El meta-análisis reveló que las cepas de T-H4 de <italic>T. harzianum</italic>, T-K11 de <italic>T. koningiopsis</italic>, T-AS1 de <italic>T. asperellum</italic> y T-A12 de <italic>T. hamatum</italic> exhibieron una compatibilidad global del 60.04%.</p>
			<p>Entre los ingredientes activos evaluados, el ingrediente activo Captan (Captan 50<sup>®</sup>) en concentraciones de 450, 900 y 1350 mg L<sup>-1</sup>, demostró el mayor porcentaje de compatibilidad (79.87%), en contraste con otros ingredientes activos como Mancozeb (Mancosol 80<sup>®</sup>) y Calonil (Talonil 75<sup>®</sup>), que presentaron 72.24% y 14.82% de compatibilidad, respectivamente.</p>
			<p>La cepa T-A12 de <italic>T. hamatum</italic> mostró una mayor resistencia al ingrediente ac-</p>
			<p>tivo Captán a una concentración de 1350 mg L<sup>-1</sup>, mientras que la cepa T-AS1 de</p>
			<p><italic>T. asperellum</italic> exhibió una menor resistencia a la misma concentración. En cuanto al ingrediente activo Mancozeb, la cepa T-H4 de <italic>T. harzianum</italic> mostró una alta compatibilidad en las concentraciones de 600, 1200 y 1800 mg L<sup>-1</sup>, mientras que la</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f3">
					<label>Figura 3</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Forest plot representa la compatibilidad C (%), indicada por las medias y sus intervalos de confianza del 95%, asociados con cada combinación de cepa y concentración de fungicida indicando la resistencia relativa y toxicidad.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT54027-gf3.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>cepa T-AS1 de <italic>T. asperellum</italic> presentó alta toxicidad a una concentración de 1800 mg L<sup>-1</sup>. Por otro lado, las cepas de T-H4 de <italic>T. harzianum</italic> mostró una toxicidad moderadamente al ingrediente activo Clorotalonil a una concentración de 450 mg L<sup>-1</sup>, sin embargo, las cepas T-AS1 de <italic>T. asperellum</italic>, T-K11 de T<italic>. koningiopsis</italic> y T-A12 de <italic>T. hamatum</italic> demostraron ser toxicas en sus tres concentraciones evaluadas, observando que la cepa T-K11 de <italic>T. koningiopsis</italic> exhibió la menor resistencia a este fungicida como se muestra en la <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="discussion">
			<title>Discusión</title>
			<p>El control biológico de patógenos en plantas se ha convertido en un área prometedora en la fitosanidad. Esta estrategia no solo minimiza la dependencia de pla-</p>
			<p>guicida sintéticos, sino que también son comparativamente económicos y factibles (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Kumar <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). En la agroecología, la mejora de la producción agrícola mediante tecnologías combinadas, como estrategias de protección vegetal, desempeña un papel importante, mejorando así la producción y productividad de los cultivos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Deguine <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp., está siendo ampliamente empleado para el manejo de patógenos de las plantas y constituye un componente esencial del manejo integrado de fitopatógenos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Maheshwary <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>).</p>
			<p>Las especies del género <italic>Trichoderma</italic> son de gran interés por sus beneficios en la agricultura y ecosistemas naturales. Tiene actividad antagonista contra varios patógenos de plantas; principalmente hongos como <italic>Fusarium oxysporum, F. solani, B. cinerea, S. sclerotiorum, S. minor, Rhizoctonia solani, Phytophthora capsici, Phytophthora parasitica, Chondrostereum purpureum, Macrophomina phaseolina, Podosphaera xanthii, Alternaria alternata, Pythium aphanidermatum</italic> y <italic>Pythium ultimum</italic> entre otros (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Aceves <italic>et al</italic>., 2001</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Guigón-López <italic>et al</italic>., 2010</xref>; Ruiz-Cisneros <italic>et al</italic>., 2017; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Correa-Pacheco <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Miguel-Ferrer <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>; SánchezMontesinos <italic>et al</italic>., 2021).</p>
			<p>Los resultados obtenidos proporcionan información crucial para la selección y aplicación de fungicidas, permitiendo una gestión eficiente y específica de enfermedades. Además, el análisis de componentes principales y el metaanálisis ofrecen herramientas robustas para comprender la estructura de la variabilidad en la respuesta de los tratamientos, lo que puede informar estrategias futuras de manejo integrado de enfermedades en sistemas agrícolas.</p>
			<p>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Peláez-Álvarez <italic>et al</italic>. (2016</xref>) mencionan el uso integrado de <italic>T. asperellum</italic> (T8a) y una dosis baja de Captán (100 mg/L<sup>−1</sup>), donde obtuvieron una mayor inhibición del crecimiento de <italic>C. gloeosporioides</italic> (ATCC MYA 454) en condiciones <italic>in vitro</italic>, una cepa patógena que causa antracnosis en el cultivo de mango. Sin embargo, el Captan en Europa tiene condiciones de uso específicas por su asociación con enfermedades cancerígenas en humanos y Mancozed está restringido lo que justifica este tipo de estudios (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Gensch <italic>et al</italic>., 2024</xref>).</p>
			<p>En el presente estudio, la cepa T-K11 de <italic>T. koningiopsis</italic> mostró una moderada compatibilidad con el ingrediente activo Mancozeb. Estos hallazgos están de acuerdo con <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">González <italic>et al</italic>. (2020</xref>), quienes demostraron en condiciones <italic>in vitro</italic> que, cuando se añade Mancozeb al medio de cultivo en concentraciones inferiores a 5 mg/mL, el crecimiento micelial de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> no se inhibe significativamente. <italic>Trichoderma</italic> puede resistir concentraciones relativamente altas de una variedad de compuestos tóxicos sintéticos y naturales, lo que depende de un complejo sistema de bombas de membrana a través del cual se llevan a cabo mecanismos eficientes de desintoxicación celular (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Ruocco <italic>et al</italic>., 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Asad, 2022</xref>).</p>
			<p>Se ha reportado la compatibilidad de <italic>T. harzianum</italic> con fungicidas como el Mancozeb en evaluaciones <italic>in vitro</italic> en medios basales, observando nula inhibición en el</p>
			<p>crecimiento radial a 25 y 50 mg L<sup>−1</sup>después de 192 y 240 h de incubación, respectivamente (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Ajay <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>). Es destacable que <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Huilgol <italic>et al</italic>. (2022</xref>) observaron la compatibilidad de <italic>T. harzianum</italic> con Mancozeb (71.80%), como se observa en la presente investigación. Existen factores que causan la tolerancia de las cepas de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> a los pesticidas, como el cambio en la función de los genes de la oxidorreductasa y los genes transportadores ABC que resultan en la tolerancia de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp. a diclorvos, mancozeb, tiram, tebuconazol y carbendazim (Hu <italic>et al</italic>., 2016; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Hirpara <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Sun <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>).</p>
			<p>Estos resultados, en concordancia con investigaciones anteriores, enfatizan el potencial de cepas de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> en combinación con ingredientes activos Captan y Mancozeb con potencial en el manejo integrado, contribuyendo así a la transición de prácticas agrícolas respetuosas con el agroecosistema. Sin embargo, estos estudios fueron realizados <italic>in vitro</italic> por lo que se requieren aun estudios en entornos productivos diversos y bajo presión de fitopatógenos específicos, además de comprender la ecología de los hongos antagonistas, así como realizar experimentos en un ambiente libre de fungicidas. En este sentido, evaluar la tolerancia/resistencia a los fungicidas químicos es un prerrequisito para que <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp., se considere en los programas de control biológico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Garman <italic>et al</italic>., 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Adnan <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Alfiky <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>; Parraguirre <italic>et al</italic>., 2023; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">Zapata-Narváez <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>).</p>
			<p>La incompatibilidad entre <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp. y el ingrediente activo Clorotalonil, plantea desafíos significativos en la implementación de prácticas agrícolas para la producción de alimentos sanos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Elshahawy <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>). Los hallazgos de esta investigación revelaron que las cuatro cepas de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp. evaluadas mostraron incompatibilidad con el fungicida Clorotalonil en diversas concentraciones (450, 900 y 1350 mg L<sup>−1</sup>). Este resultado coincide con investigaciones previas realizadas por Gangopadhyay <italic>et al</italic>. (2009), donde reportaron una alta toxicidad de Clorotalonil para <italic>T. viride</italic>, corroborando los hallazgos de la presente investigación al demostrar la incompatibilidad a Clorotalonil con la cepa T-A12 de <italic>T. hamatum</italic>, aun cuando es una especie diferente.</p>
			<p>Se destaca que el ingrediente activo Clorotalonil es un fungicida foliar ampliamente utilizado en todo el mundo, actúa como un componente aromático policlorado de amplio espectro que interfiere con la respiración celular y la síntesis de ATP en los hongos, lo que puede resultar en la muerte celular (Cruz <italic>et al</italic>., 2022). Estas observaciones subrayan la importancia de comprender la toxicidad de fungicidas en agentes de control biológico como <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp., como el caso de Clorotalonil, que puede comprometer el desarrollo de estrategias de manejo integrado y la capacidad de los agricultores para gestionar eficazmente enfermedades de cultivos. La integración de tecnologías en protección vegetal, desempeña un papel destacado en la mejora de la productividad agrícolas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Shang <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Bokade <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). De acuerdo a los resultados obtenidos, es importante explorar un rango más am-</p>
			<p>plio de concentraciones de los fungicidas (Captan, Mancozeb y Clorotalonil) para identificar dosis óptimas que balanceen la toxicidad y compatibilidad con más especies de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> provenientes de diferentes regiones geográficas. Así mismo, investigar los mecanismos enfocados en la expresión génica, actividad enzimática y la fisiología celular subyacentes a la tolerancia o susceptibilidad de las cepas de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> frente a fungicidas, estos estudios podrían revelar adaptaciones específicas y ayudar a predecir la evolución de la resistencia. Por otro lado, es primordial, llevar los resultados en condiciones de campo para validar los resultados de laboratorio, con el fin de evaluar factores como suelo, microbiota nativo y condiciones climáticas que afectan la compatibilidad entre los fungicidas y <italic>Trichoderma</italic> en un ecosistema agrícola más complejo.</p>
			<p>La presente investigación en torno a la toxicidad y compatibilidad entre fungicidas y <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp., nativos de rizósfera de aguacate (<italic>Persea americana</italic>) y canela (<italic>Cinnamomun verum</italic>) adquiere una relevancia significativa en el contexto de la agricultura. Este enfoque permite evaluar de manera integral la interacción entre agentes de control biológico y químico, con el objetivo de desarrollar prácticas agrícolas que minimicen los impactos ambientales y que permitan la efectividad y la selección de agentes microbianos con fines de control biológico.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusiones</title>
			<p>Los tratamientos con diferentes concentraciones de los fungicidas Captan, Mancozeb y Clorotalonil evidenciaron una marcada variabilidad en términos de prevalencia y toxicidad hacia las especies evaluadas de <italic>Trichoderma</italic>. Las concentraciones más altas demostraron ser significativamente más tóxicas, mientras que las dosis bajas permitieron una mayor prevalencia de los organismos evaluados.</p>
			<p>En el caso del fungicida Mancozeb, a la dosis de 1800 mg L⁻¹, resultó ser altamente tóxica para la cepa de <italic>T. asperellum</italic>. Este fungicida de contacto es efectivo en general para un amplio espectro de hongos que causan infección en órganos vegetales aéreos.</p>
			<p>El fungicida Captan, aplicado a bajas concentraciones, mostró una disminución variable en la prevalencia de las cuatro cepas de <italic>Trichoderma</italic>, lo que sugiere que la compatibilidad está directamente influenciada por la dosis utilizada. Entre las cepas evaluadas, <italic>T. harzianum</italic> presentó la mayor compatibilidad (89.35 %), seguido de <italic>T. koningiopsis</italic> y <italic>T. asperellum</italic>, particularmente a una dosis de 450 mg L⁻¹, donde se observó una menor toxicidad. Estos resultados destacan la importancia de ajustar las dosis de Captan para maximizar la eficacia del fungicida sin comprometer la actividad biológica de <italic>Trichoderma</italic>, lo que resulta esencial para su integración en programas de manejo integrado.</p>
			<p>Respecto al Clorotalonil, la cepa T-H4 de <italic>T. harzianum</italic> mostró una mayor tolerancia a una concentración de 450 mg L⁻¹; sin embargo, se observó una alta toxicidad a concentraciones superiores (900 y 1350 mg L⁻¹), clasificadas como niveles 2 y 1, respectivamente. En contraste, la cepa T-K11 se identificó como la más susceptible a este ingrediente activo.</p>
			<p>La variabilidad observada en las respuestas de las especies evaluadas resalta que no todas han desarrollado mecanismos efectivos de resistencia o tolerancia a ciertos ingredientes activos, posiblemente debido a presiones selectivas específicas en sus ambientes locales. Este hallazgo refuerza la importancia de evaluar de manera integral la interacción entre fungicidas químicos y agentes biológicos como <italic>Trichoderma</italic>. Una comprensión más profunda de estas interacciones permitirá diseñar estrategias de manejo integrado, minimizando la dependencia de productos químicos y promoviendo la compatibilidad entre agentes biológicos y fungicidas.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
		<ack>
			<title>Conflicto interés</title>
			<p>Los autores declaran no tener ningún conflicto de intereses.</p>
			<p> </p>
			<p>Fondos</p>
			<p>Esta investigación no recibió financiación externa</p>
			<p> </p>
			<p>Agradecimientos</p>
			<p>Los autores agradecen al Consejo Nacional de Humanidades, Ciencia y Tecnología (CONA-CyT) No. 4746 y al Laboratorio 204 del Centro de Agroecología de la Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla.</p>
			<p> </p>
			<p>Contribuciones de Autores</p>
			<p>Concepción O.R.-A. y C.P.L.; conceptualización, O.R.-A. y A.C.C.; metodología, C.A.C.P.,</p>
			<p>C.P.L. y O.R.-A.; software, A.M.G. y A.C.C.; validación, O.R.-A., A.R.T.; análisis formal, A.R.T.,</p>
			<p>A.M.G. y O.R.-A.; investigación A.C.C., A.M.G. y O.R.-A.; recursos, O.R.-A., C.P.L. y A.R.T.; redacción: preparación del borrador original, A.C.C., C.A.C.P., y A.M.G.; redacción, revisión y edición, C.P.L. y O.R.-A.; visualización, O.R.-A., C.A.C.P. y A.R.T.; supervisión, O.R.-A.; administración del proyecto, O.R.-A. y C.P.L.; adquisición de fondos, O.R.-A. y A.R.T. Todos los autores han leído y aceptado la versión publicada del manuscrito.</p>
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	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="en">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Scientific Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Toxicity of contact fungicides to four <italic>Trichoderma</italic> species: an <italic>in vitro</italic> compatibility approach</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p> </p>
				<sec>
					<title>Objective/Background</title>
					<p>. The transition towards responsible agricultural practices is essential to promote the health of agroecosystems and ensure food security. Promoting comprehensive research that combines chemical and biological methods represents a significant advance in the management of phytopathogens. This novel approach is based on the premise that the joint action between fungicides and an antagonistic agent such as <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp. can offer robust protection compared to individual approaches. The objective of the study is to investigate the <italic>in vitro</italic> resistance and compatibility of four <italic>Trichoderma</italic> species against three fungicides widely used in Mexico.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Materials and Methods</title>
					<p>. The controlled poisoning technique was used in PDA medium under controlled conditions with three concentrations (450, 900 and 1350 mg L<sup>−1</sup>) for the active ingredients Captan and Chlorothalonil, while for Mancozeb 600, 1200 and 1800 mg L<sup>−1</sup> were used. Compatibility was determined in relation to the control group using the statistical software SPSS Statistics version 26 for the Windows operating environment.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Results</title>
					<p>. The study revealed that the strains of <italic>T. harzianum</italic>, <italic>T. hamatum</italic>, <italic>T. koningiopsis</italic> and <italic>T</italic>. <italic>asperellum</italic> exhibited an overall compatibility of 60.04% for the active ingredients evaluated, with the fungicide Captan 50® showing the highest percentage of compatibility (79.87%) at concentrations of 450, 900 and 1350 mg L<sup>-1</sup>. <italic>T. harzianum</italic> showed greater tolerance to the active ingredient Chlorothalonil at a concentration of 450 mg L⁻¹, however, at higher concentrations it showed greater toxicity, with <italic>T. koningiopsis</italic> exhibiting the lowest resistance at its three tested concentrations.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Conclusion</title>
					<p>. Treatments with different concentrations of the fungicides Captan, Mancozeb and Chlorothalonil showed a marked variability in terms of prevalence and toxicity towards the tested <italic>Trichoderma</italic> species <italic>in vitro</italic>. This approach allows the design of integrated management strategies minimizing the dependence on chemical products and promoting compatibility between biological agents and fungicides.</p>
				</sec>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>Fungi</kwd>
				<kwd>phytopathogens</kwd>
				<kwd>toxicity</kwd>
				<kwd>resistance.</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introduction</title>
				<p>In modern agriculture, controlling pathogens associated with crop diseases faces significant challenges due to the frequent and widespread use of industrial inputs, commonly known as agrotoxins (Hensh <italic>et al</italic>., 2022). The use of these inputs has risen sharply in recent years to boost the productivity of agricultural systems (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Zhang <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Balaska <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). However, overuse has resulted in the development of resistance, diminishing their effectiveness and raising serious environmental concerns (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Lamichhane <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Sharma <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>; AndradeHoyos <italic>et al</italic>., 2023).</p>
				<p>In Mexico, the introduction of Green Revolution technologies during the second half of the 20th century brought conventional farming practices along with the extensive use of fertilizers and pesticides for crop production (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Rivera <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>). It is estimated that Mexican farmers use around 900 pesticides across various crops. Some of these pesticides are classified as highly hazardous according to the list published by Pesticide Action Network International (PAN, 2016), causing significant ecological harm and adverse health effects on local populations and consumers (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Muhie <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Rosas-Sánchez <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). Available data indicate that regions in Mexico with the highest pesticide usage include Sinaloa, Chiapas, Veracruz, Jalisco, Nayarit, Colima, Sonora, Baja California, Tamaulipas, Michoacán, Tabasco, Estado de México, Oaxaca, and Puebla, where 80% of the country’s total pesticides are applied. Additionally, contamination by 28 pesticides has been reported in 15 states of the Mexican Republic, according to data from the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Ortiz-Hernández <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>; SEMARNAT, 2020).</p>
				<p>Year after year, the quantities of fungicides used fluctuate significantly, ranging from 395 to 13.16 tons, highlighting the country’s heavy dependence on these</p>
				<p>products for crop protection (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">García-Gutiérrez <italic>et al</italic>., 2012</xref>). Furthermore, no public information is available regarding the names, active ingredients, or quantities of the fungicides authorized for nationwide use (Cruz <italic>et al</italic>., 2022). According to García <italic>et al</italic>. (2018), active ingredients such as Captan, Mancozeb, and Chlorothalonil are among the most commonly applied in the country.</p>
				<p>The search for agricultural strategies to improve the effectiveness of pathogen control in food production has led to exploring beneficial synergies between fungicides and biological antagonists like <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp. (Abd <italic>et al</italic>., 2019). This innovative approach is based on the premise that combining fungicides with <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp. can provide stronger protection against pathogens compared to using either method alone (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Yao <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>; Parraguirre <italic>et al</italic>., 2023). Research in this area aims to understand and optimize these interactions to develop effective and environmentally sustainable agricultural practices. This represents a significant step toward integrating chemical and biological methods in managing crop pathogens (Terrero-Yépez <italic>et al</italic>., 2028; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Ruano-Rosa <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">Zin <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Rodríguez <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>).</p>
				<p>The integration of chemical and biological methods, such as the use of the genus <italic>Trichoderma</italic>, represents a shift in agricultural management, emphasizing the need to balance treatment effectiveness with biodiversity preservation and agricultural sustainability. Adopting this approach allows farmers to efficiently combat various pathogens while promoting the long-term health of agroecosystems (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Tyśkiewicz <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>).</p>
				<p>This transition toward practices that reduce the negative impacts of fungicides marks a significant step forward and establishes a foundation for a resilient and sustainable future in producing healthy food (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Mishenin <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). In this context, exploring innovative solutions becomes essential. Accordingly, this study aimed to evaluate the resistance and <italic>in vitro</italic> compatibility of four <italic>Trichoderma</italic> species with three broad-spectrum active ingredients commonly used in Mexico.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="materials|methods">
				<title>Materials and Methods</title>
				<p>The study was conducted in Laboratory 204 of Phytopathology at the Center for Agroecology, VAL 1 Building, Institute of Sciences, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla.</p>
				<p>Biological material. The strains used were previously characterized and identified both taxonomically and molecularly (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Andrade-Hoyos <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). For this study, <italic>Trichoderma harzianum</italic> (T-H4) was collected in Tetela de Ocampo, Puebla; <italic>Trichoderma koningiopsis</italic> (T-K11) in Guadalajara, Jalisco; and <italic>Trichodermaasperellum</italic> (T-AS1) in Hidalgo, all isolated from the rhizosphere of avocado (<italic>Persea americana</italic>). Additionally, the strain <italic>Trichoderma hamatum</italic> (T-A12) was collected in Tlaltipa, Veracruz, isolated from the rhizosphere of cinnamon (<italic>Cinnamomum verum</italic>). The sequences are deposited in the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) database with accession numbers MK779064, MK791648, MK778890, and MK791650, respectively. They are also preserved in Laboratory 204 of Phytopathology at the Center for Agroecology, Institute of Sciences, BUAP.</p>
				<p>Characterization of growth under standard conditions. Ten-day-old fragments, 5 mm in diameter, with active growth of <italic>Trichoderma</italic> strains cultured on PDA medium (Bioxon, Becton Dickinson, Mexico City, Mexico) were used. Each fragment was placed in a Petri dish (9 cm in diameter) containing 20 mL of PDA (Bioxon, Becton Dickinson, Mexico City, Mexico) and incubated at 28 ± 2 °C in darkness for 10 days. Mycelial growth was measured every 12 hours using a digital Vernier caliper (CD-6 Mitutoyo, Naucalpan de Juárez, Mexico), with the average taken from four measurements per experimental unit (4 Petri dishes). The diameter (d) was calculated using the formula: d = 2 × r (Mannerucci <italic>et al</italic>., 2023). The experiment was performed in duplicate using a completely randomized design, with four replicates for each treatment.</p>
				<p><bold>
 <italic>In vitro</italic> assay of resistance and tolerance to fungicides.</bold> The controlled poisoning technique described by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Azza <italic>et al</italic>. (2021</xref>) was applied, using 5 mm diameter discs with 10-day-old active mycelium from the strains T-H4 of <italic>T. harzianum</italic>, T-K11 of</p>
				<p><italic>T. koningiopsis</italic>, T-AS1 of <italic>T. asperellum</italic>, and T-A12 of <italic>T. hamatum</italic>. PDA medium (Bioxon, Becton Dickinson, Mexico City, Mexico) was prepared according to the manufacturer’s instructions and supplemented with the active ingredient from one of three protective fungicide brands (Captán 50®, Mancosol 80®, Talonil 75®) at three different concentrations, measured in mg L⁻¹: (a) low (half the recommended commercial dose), (b) recommended (the commercial dose authorized by the manufacturer), and (c) high (double the recommended commercial dose) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 1</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t4">
						<label>Table 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Fungicides used at different evaluated concentrations.</title>
						</caption>
						<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th rowspan="2" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Fungicidal (Commercial name)</th>
									<th rowspan="2" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Active ingredient</th>
									<th rowspan="2" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Molecular formula</th>
									<th colspan="3" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Concentration (mg L−1)</th>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Low</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Recommended</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">High</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td>Captán 50®</td>
									<td>Captan</td>
									<td>C9H8Cl3NO2S</td>
									<td>450</td>
									<td>900</td>
									<td>1350</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Mancosol 80®</td>
									<td>Mancozeb</td>
									<td>C4H6MnN2S4</td>
									<td>600</td>
									<td>1200</td>
									<td>1800</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Talonil 75®</td>
									<td>Clorotalonil</td>
									<td>C8Cl4N2</td>
									<td>450</td>
									<td>900</td>
									<td>1350</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>Finally, 5 mm diameter discs from 10-day-old <italic>Trichoderma</italic> cultures grown on PDA medium (Bioxon, Becton Dickinson, Mexico City, Mexico) were placed on 9 cm diameter Petri dishes containing 20 mL of PDA supplemented with the different fungicide treatments, in triplicate. The plates were incubated at 28 ± 2</p>
				<p>°C with a 12-hour photoperiod for 10 days to induce sporulation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Escudero-Leyva <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>). PDA medium prepared according to the manufacturer’s instructions, without fungicide addition, served as the control group.</p>
				<p>The evaluation ended when the mycelium in the control group for each strain completely covered the Petri dish. The percentage of mycelial growth inhibition was calculated using the formula PI = [(X − Y)/X] × 100, as proposed by Sundar <italic>et al</italic>. (1995), where PI = Percentage of inhibition, X = Colony diameter on the control plate, and Y = Colony diameter on the treated plate.</p>
				<p>To assess the effect of the fungicide active ingredients at different concentrations on conidial formation capacity (CFC), the method described by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Castellanos <italic>et al</italic>. (2015</xref>), with minor modifications, was employed. Ten-day-old plates of <italic>Trichoderma</italic> strains grown on media containing the different fungicides and the control group were used. For each plate, 9 mL of sterile water mixed with 1 mL of 0.01% Tween 80 was added. Tween 80 was included to reduce water surface tension and ensure a uniform distribution of conidia for precise microscopic counting. The conidial suspension was then transferred to 160 × 20 mm test tubes and adjusted to a final volume of 20 mL using sterile water in a volumetric flask. Each tube was vortexed for 30 seconds, and conidial counts (conidia mL⁻¹) were performed using a Neubauer counting chamber. Additionally, the sporulation percentage (SP) for each fungicide treatment was calculated relative to the control group.</p>
				<p><bold>
 <italic>In vitro</italic> compatibility assay with fungicides</bold>. The two previously evaluated indicators were used: the percentage of mycelial growth inhibition and the percentage of sporulation at 10 days. These were calculated using the formula C = [20(CV) + 80(SP)]/100, as established by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Alves <italic>et al</italic>. (1998</xref>), where C = Corrected value for product classification, CV = Percentage of mycelial growth inhibition of the treatment compared to the control group, and SP = Percentage of sporulation of the treatment compared to the control. The compatibility of each active ingredient was then determined based on the C values, using the scale proposed by Alves <italic>et al</italic>. (1998): A) Very toxic, 0-30%; B) Toxic, 31-45%; C) Moderately toxic, 46- 60%; and D) Compatible, greater than 60%. This approach provides a quantitative assessment of each pesticide’s compatibility with <italic>Trichoderma</italic> strains, enabling an objective evaluation of the observed effects.</p>
				<p>Statistical analysis. The collected data were analyzed using a multivariate linear model with a full factorial design (MANOVA) in SPSS Statistics version 26 for Windows. The response variables included mycelial growth diameter, sporulation rate, and percentage of mycelial growth inhibition. The fixed factors were the active ingredient, the evaluated concentrations, and the four <italic>Trichoderma</italic> species studied. Bartlett’s test of sphericity was performed to assess the homogeneity of covariances, followed by Tukey-Kramer multiple comparison tests at a significance level of <italic>p</italic> ≤ 0.05.</p>
				<p>The variables percentage of mycelial growth inhibition (PI) and sporulation percentage (SP) were transformed using the angular arccosine function (√x + 1). Compatibility (C) was then analyzed using principal component analysis (PCA) and meta-analysis, conducted with Jamovi Statistics version 2.0 for Windows. Meta-analysis results were presented as mean differences with their 95% confidence intervals (CI). Heterogeneity values (I²) and statistical significance were also reported.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="results">
				<title>Results</title>
				<p>The results from the Type III Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) show that the independent variables-active ingredients, <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp<italic>.</italic> species, and the different concentrations of each active ingredient-have a highly significant effect (<italic>p</italic> = 0.0001) on the percentage growth index (PI%), colony diameter, and conidial concentration per milliliter. Furthermore, the interactions between active ingredients and species, as well as between active ingredients and concentrations, were also statistically significant. This demonstrates that the efficacy of active ingredients varies depending on the <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp<italic>.</italic> species and the concentration applied. These findings highlight that the efficacy of active ingredients is not uniform but differs significantly based on the <italic>Trichoderma</italic> species and concentration, suggesting that certain species may exhibit resistance or sensitivity to specific chemical compounds. This is crucial for developing integrated and targeted management strategies.</p>
				<p>The statistical model used is robust, explaining between 92.2 and 94% of the variability in the data, as reflected in the adjusted R² values. This indicates that the evaluated variables are key drivers of the observed response in <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp<italic>.</italic> and reinforces the importance of accounting for multiple factors and their interactions in studies on the efficacy of biocontrol agents (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Table 2</xref>). These results provide a strong basis for future research and practical applications in agricultural disease management. This is particularly important in the context of integrated disease management, where the careful selection of active ingredients, combined with appropriate species and concentrations, can optimize outcomes while minimizing adverse effects on the agroecosystem.</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t5">
						<label>Table 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Partial multifactorial analysis of variance (MANOVA) for the effects of active ingredients, species (<italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp<italic>.</italic>), and concentration on the percentage of mycelial growth inhibition (PI), diameter (mm), and conidial formation capacity (CFC).</title>
						</caption>
						<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Origin</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Dependent variable</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Type III sum of squares</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">dF</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Root mean square</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">F</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Sig.</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td> </td>
									<td>X1= PI (%)</td>
									<td>123455.289a</td>
									<td>39</td>
									<td>3165.52</td>
									<td>64.664</td>
									<td>&lt;0.001</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Corrected modelx</td>
									<td>X2= Diameter (mm)</td>
									<td>95923.155b</td>
									<td>39</td>
									<td>2459.56</td>
									<td>48.886</td>
									<td>&lt;0.001</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td> </td>
									<td>X = CFC (Conidia mL-1) 3</td>
									<td>245 E+05c</td>
									<td>39</td>
									<td>6.30E+23</td>
									<td>61.986</td>
									<td>&lt;0.001</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td rowspan="3">Active ingredients * Species * Concentration ny</td>
									<td>X1</td>
									<td>4048.447</td>
									<td>12</td>
									<td>337.371</td>
									<td>6.892</td>
									<td>&lt;0.001</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>X2</td>
									<td>4.1764E+23</td>
									<td>12</td>
									<td>3.4803E+22</td>
									<td>2.702</td>
									<td>&lt;0.001</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>X3</td>
									<td>2270.496</td>
									<td>12</td>
									<td>189.208</td>
									<td>4.768</td>
									<td>&lt;0.003</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN3">
								<p>xDesign: Intercept + Active ingredients + Species (<italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp<italic>.</italic>) + Concentration n; yActive ingredients * Species (<italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp<italic>.</italic>) * Concentration n; Concentration n: R² = 0.955 (Adjusted R² = 0.94)a; Diameter: R² = 0.95 (Adjusted R² = 0.94)b; CFC: R² = 0.941 (Adjusted R² = 0.92)c; Significance alpha = 0.05.</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>A clear reduction in fungal colony diameter was observed as the concentration of active ingredients increased, particularly at high concentrations of Mancozeb (1800 mg L⁻¹) and Chlorothalonil (1350 mg L⁻¹). In terms of sporulation, the results showed that the control group allowed for a high concentration of conidia in all <italic>Trichoderma</italic> species, with values exceeding 1.4E+12 conidia mL⁻¹ (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Table 3</xref>).</p>
				<p>The DTH0 treatment, used as the control, exhibited a larger colony diameter in <italic>T. hamatum</italic> compared to other treatments, while its sporulation capacity was significantly higher than that of other <italic>Trichoderma</italic> species under the same conditions. <italic>T. harzianum</italic> demonstrated a colony diameter of 22.31 mm at 1800 mg L⁻¹ of Mancozeb and 10.50 mm at 1350 mg L⁻¹ of Chlorothalonil.</p>
				<p>The active ingredient Captan caused a moderate reduction in colony diameter and was less effective at low concentrations (450 mg L⁻¹) compared to Mancozeb and Chlorothalonil. However, Chlorothalonil had a pronounced negative impact on conidial formation capacity, especially in <italic>T. hamatum</italic> and <italic>T. asperellum</italic>, which reached only 1.13E+11 and 1.25E+11 conidia mL⁻¹, respectively, at a concentration of 1350 mg L⁻¹. Mancozeb at a concentration of 600 mg L⁻¹ maintained higher sporulation levels compared to Chlorothalonil, though it still showed a noticeable reduction relative to the control (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Table 3</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 1</xref> shows the percentage of mycelial growth inhibition (PI) in different <italic>Trichoderma</italic> species exposed to the active ingredients Captan, Mancozeb, and Chlorothalonil. Treatments with inhibition percentages ranging from 40% to 60% and higher mycelial growth for the different fungicide active ingredients include DTH1-3, DTK1, and DTHR1-2 for Captan at all three concentrations tested, followed by DTA4-6 and DTHR1 for Mancozeb at a concentration of 600 mg L⁻¹.</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t6">
						<label>Table 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Evaluation of four <italic>Trichoderma</italic> species at different fungicide concentrations under controlled conditions.</title>
						</caption>
						<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Code</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Active ingredient</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Species</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Concentration (mg L−1)</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Diameter±SD (mm) X</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">CFC±SD (conidial mL-1) X</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td>DTHR0</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>T. harzianum</td>
									<td>-</td>
									<td>90.00±0.01a</td>
									<td>1.66E+12±3.59E+07a</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTK0</td>
									<td>Water</td>
									<td>T. konigiopsis</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>89.99±0.01a</td>
									<td>1.47E+12±2.46E+07a</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTH0</td>
									<td>(Control)</td>
									<td>T. hamatum</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>88.95±0.01a</td>
									<td>1.41E+12±1.50E+07a</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTA0</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>T. asperellum</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>89.17±0.01a</td>
									<td>1.48E+12±1.13E+07a</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTHR1</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>T. harzianum</td>
									<td>450</td>
									<td>42.38±1.30cdefg</td>
									<td>4.76E+11±2.14E+11bcdef</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTHR2</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>900</td>
									<td>37.88±1.30cdefghi</td>
									<td>3.49E+11±1.56E+11bcdefg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTHR3</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>1350</td>
									<td>35.50±0.58cdefghi</td>
									<td>2.26E+11±3.38E+10cdefg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTK1</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>T. konigiopsis</td>
									<td>450</td>
									<td>43.88±9.99cdef</td>
									<td>5.48E+11±5.70E+10bcd</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTK2</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>900</td>
									<td>31.13±14.75defghij</td>
									<td>3.96E+11±1.34E+11 bcdefg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTK3</td>
									<td>Captan</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>1350</td>
									<td>25.19±12.60hijkl</td>
									<td>1.85E+11±5.45E+10defg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTH01</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>T. hamatum</td>
									<td>450</td>
									<td>39.88±1.65cdefgh</td>
									<td>3.54E+11±3.90E+10bcdefg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTH02</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>900</td>
									<td>34.75±5.04cdefghi</td>
									<td>3.24E+11±2.40E+11cdefg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTH03</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>1350</td>
									<td>27.50±5.26fghijk</td>
									<td>2.08E+11±1.04E+10defg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTA1</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>T. asperellum</td>
									<td>450</td>
									<td>49.50±15.22c</td>
									<td>4.15E+11±9.46E+10bcdefg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTA2</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>900</td>
									<td>40.75±15.50cdefgh</td>
									<td>3.98E+11±3.07E+10bcdefg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTA3</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>1350</td>
									<td>35.75±14.19cdefghi</td>
									<td>2.74E+11±1.09E+10cdefg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTHR4</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>T. harzianum</td>
									<td>600</td>
									<td>29.75±4.31efghij</td>
									<td>1.28E+11±3.18E+10efg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTHR5</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>1200</td>
									<td>26.56±4.97ghijkl</td>
									<td>9.00E+10±1.06E+10fg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTHR6</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>1800</td>
									<td>22.31±1.95ijklm</td>
									<td>5.63E+10±1.30E+10g</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTK4</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>T. konigiopsis</td>
									<td>600</td>
									<td>47.13±9.55cd</td>
									<td>3.47E+11±1.16E+11bcdefg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTK5</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>1200</td>
									<td>45.81±2.12cde</td>
									<td>1.13E+11±6.29E+10efg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTK6</td>
									<td>Mancozeb</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>1800</td>
									<td>41.44±2.88cdefgh</td>
									<td>1.13E+11±6.29E+10efg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTH4</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>T. hamatum</td>
									<td>600</td>
									<td>36.00±2.71cdefghi</td>
									<td>3.21E+11±7.92E+10defg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTH5</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>1200</td>
									<td>34.81±5.32cdefghi</td>
									<td>1.58E+11±1.01E+11defg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTH6</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>1800</td>
									<td>10.75±0.96lmn</td>
									<td>1.13E+11±6.29E+10efg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTA4</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>T. asperellum</td>
									<td>600</td>
									<td>66.50±12.12b</td>
									<td>2.94E+11±1.86E+11cdefg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTA5</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>1200</td>
									<td>30.50±1.34efghij</td>
									<td>5.25E+10±6.12E+09g</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTA6</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>1800</td>
									<td>11.00±0.82klmn</td>
									<td>2.06E+10±1.55E+10g</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTHR7</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>T. harzianum</td>
									<td>450</td>
									<td>12.50±3.42klmn</td>
									<td>3.84E+11±8.23E+10bcdefg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTHR8</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>900</td>
									<td>11.75±1.71klmn</td>
									<td>2.84E+11±1.01E+10cdefg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTHR9</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>1350</td>
									<td>10.50±1.29lmn</td>
									<td>2.59E+11±9.93E+10cdefg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTK7</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>T. konigiopsis</td>
									<td>450</td>
									<td>17.00±2.58jklmn</td>
									<td>5.48E+11±6.06E+10 bcd</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTK8</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>900</td>
									<td>14.75±2.50jklmn</td>
									<td>5.03E+11 ± 6.93E+10bcde</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTK9</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>1350</td>
									<td>11.50±1.91klmn</td>
									<td>4.26E+11±4.98E+10bcdefg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTH7</td>
									<td>Chlorothalonil</td>
									<td>T. hamatum</td>
									<td>450</td>
									<td>1.50±0.58n</td>
									<td>2.00E+11±2.58E+04defg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTH8</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>900</td>
									<td>1.25±0.50n</td>
									<td>2.00E+11±2.58E+04defg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTH09</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>1350</td>
									<td>1.50 ± 0.58n</td>
									<td>1.13E+11 ± 6.29E+10efg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTA7</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>T. asperellum</td>
									<td>450</td>
									<td>12.50±1.29klmn</td>
									<td>7.39E+11 ± 1.05E+11b</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTA8</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>900</td>
									<td>6.50±2.38mn</td>
									<td>6.24E+11 ± 3.75E+10bc</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>DTA9</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>1350</td>
									<td>1.25±0.50n</td>
									<td>1.25E+11 ± 6.45E+10efg</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN4">
								<label><sup>x</sup></label>
								<p>Identical letters indicate no statistically significant differences (<italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.05) between treatments. SD: standard deviation.</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f4">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Percentage of mycelial growth inhibition (PI) in four <italic>Trichoderma</italic> species at different fungicide concentrations under controlled conditions. *Identical letters indicate no statistically significant differences (<italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.05) between treatments.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT54027-gf4.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>These results indicate a moderate capacity for the studied phenomenon compared to the active ingredient Chlorothalonil, which demonstrated higher efficacy in inhibiting the mycelial growth of the evaluated <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp<italic>.</italic> species. Chlorothalonil was effective at all three tested concentrations.</p>
				<p>These findings underscore the critical role of fungicide concentration in regulating the percentage of inhibition (PI) in the <italic>Trichoderma</italic> species studied. They also highlight differences in each species’ response to the various chemical ingredients of the fungicides, emphasizing the need to account for intraspecific variability in <italic>Trichoderma</italic> species when developing strategies for control, resistance, and compatibility as part of the transition to sustainable agricultural practices targeting phytopathogens.</p>
				<p>In this study, the compatibility of different fungicide concentrations with native antagonists isolated from the avocado rhizosphere showed highly significant variations (<italic>p</italic> = 0.0001). Compatibility decreased as fungicide concentration increased, suggesting potential differences in tolerance among the evaluated <italic>Trichoderma</italic> species. Principal component analysis revealed a clustering of treatments based on the compatibility and toxicity scale established by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Alves <italic>et al</italic>. (1998</xref>) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 2</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f5">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Principal component analysis explained 93.1% of the variance in two components regarding the compatibility of four native <italic>Trichoderma</italic> strains at different fungicide concentrations, according to the scale established by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Alves <italic>et al.</italic> (1998</xref>).</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT54027-gf5.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>This analysis revealed that 93.1% of the variability was explained by two principal components, labeled as “Dim 1 (73.9%)” and “Dim 2 (19.2%),” representing the dimensions of the principal component analysis. Approximately 65% of the treatments were classified as compatible, followed by those classified as moderately compatible (15.6%) and very toxic (13.1%). The toxic classification category had the lowest percentage distribution, accounting for only 6.3% of the analyzed cases.</p>
				<p>A meta-analysis was also conducted, using the mean difference (x̄) and standard deviation (SD) of the treatments (K = 40) as the outcome measure. Mean differences</p>
				<p>(T) ranged from 1.38 to 99.98, with nearly all estimates being positive (100%). The estimated average mean difference, based on the random-effects model, was μ^ =60.04 (95% CI: 49.00 to 71.08). This value was significantly different from zero (t(39) = 10.99, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.0001), indicating a clear trend in the results. Additionally, the</p>
				<p>heterogeneity test revealed significant variability (Q(39) = 411015.47, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.0001, τ² = 1184.30, i² = 100%), suggesting substantial differences across the studies included in the analysis. This provided a detailed understanding of the observed effects, with a 95% prediction interval (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 3</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f6">
						<label>Figure 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Forest plot representing compatibility (C%), indicated by the means and their 95% confidence intervals, associated with each combination of strain and fungicide concentration, showing relative resistance and toxicity.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-01-RMEXFIT54027-gf6.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>The meta-analysis revealed that the strains T-H4 of <italic>T. harzianum</italic>, T-K11 of</p>
				<p><italic>T. koningiopsis</italic>, T-AS1 of <italic>T. asperellum</italic>, and T-A12 of <italic>T. hamatum</italic> exhibited an overall compatibility of 60.04%.</p>
				<p>Among the active ingredients evaluated, Captan (Captan 50®) at concentrations of 450, 900, and 1350 mg L⁻¹ showed the highest compatibility percentage (79.87%),</p>
				<p>compared to Mancozeb (Mancosol 80®) and Chlorothalonil (Talonil 75®), which exhibited compatibilities of 72.24% and 14.82%, respectively.</p>
				<p>The strain T-A12 of <italic>T. hamatum</italic> showed the highest resistance to Captan at a concentration of 1350 mg L⁻¹, while the strain T-AS1 of <italic>T. asperellum</italic> displayed the lowest resistance at the same concentration. For Mancozeb, the strain T-H4 of</p>
				<p><italic>T. harzianum</italic> exhibited high compatibility at concentrations of 600, 1200, and 1800 mg L⁻¹, whereas the strain T-AS1 of <italic>T. asperellum</italic> showed high toxicity at 1800 mg L⁻¹.</p>
				<p>For Chlorothalonil, the strain T-H4 of <italic>T. harzianum</italic> exhibited moderate toxicity at 450 mg L⁻¹. However, the strains T-AS1 of <italic>T. asperellum</italic>, T-K11 of <italic>T. koningiopsis</italic>, and T-A12 of <italic>T. hamatum</italic> showed toxicity at all three concentrations tested. Among these, T-K11 of <italic>T. koningiopsis</italic> displayed the lowest resistance to this fungicide, as shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 3</xref>.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="discussion">
				<title>Discussion</title>
				<p>The biological control of plant pathogens has emerged as a promising approach in plant health management. This strategy not only reduces dependence on synthetic pesticides but is also cost-effective and practical (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Kumar <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). In agroecology, enhancing agricultural production through combined technologies, such as plant protection strategies, plays a vital role in increasing crop yield and productivity (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Deguine <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp. is widely used for managing plant pathogens and is a key component of integrated phytopathogen management (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Maheshwary <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>).</p>
				<p>Species of the genus <italic>Trichoderma</italic> are of significant interest due to their benefits in agriculture and natural ecosystems. They exhibit antagonistic activity against a wide range of plant pathogens, primarily fungi such as <italic>Fusarium oxysporum</italic>,</p>
				<p><italic>F. solani</italic>, <italic>B. cinerea</italic>, <italic>S. sclerotiorum</italic>, <italic>S. minor</italic>, <italic>Rhizoctonia solani</italic>, <italic>Phytophthora capsici</italic>, <italic>Phytophthora parasitica</italic>, <italic>Chondrostereum purpureum</italic>, <italic>Macrophomina phaseolina</italic>, <italic>Podosphaera xanthii</italic>, <italic>Alternaria alternata</italic>, <italic>Pythium aphanidermatum</italic>, and <italic>Pythium ultimum</italic>, among others (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Aceves <italic>et al</italic>., 2001</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Guigón-López <italic>et al</italic>., 2010</xref>; Ruiz-Cisneros <italic>et al</italic>., 2017; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Correa-Pacheco <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Miguel-Ferrer <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Sánchez-Montesinos <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>).</p>
				<p>The findings provide essential information for selecting and applying fungicides, facilitating efficient and targeted disease management. Additionally, principal component analysis and meta-analysis serve as robust tools to understand variability in treatment responses, offering valuable insights for future integrated disease management strategies in agricultural systems.</p>
				<p>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Peláez-Álvarez <italic>et al</italic>. (2016</xref>) reported the combined use of <italic>T. asperellum</italic> (T8a) and a low dose of Captan (100 mg/L<sup>−1</sup>), which resulted in significant inhibition of <italic>C. gloeosporioides</italic> (ATCC MYA 454) growth under <italic>in vitro</italic> conditions. This pathogen strain is responsible for causing anthracnose in mango crops. However, Captan is subject to specific usage restrictions in Europe due to its association with carcinogenic effects in humans, and Mancozeb is also restricted, highlighting the importance of studies like this one (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Gensch <italic>et al</italic>., 2024</xref>).</p>
				<p>In this study, the <italic>T. koningiopsis</italic> strain T-K11 demonstrated moderate compatibility with the active ingredient Mancozeb. These findings are consistent with those of <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">González <italic>et al</italic>. (2020</xref>), who showed under <italic>in vitro</italic> conditions that adding Mancozeb to the culture medium at concentrations below 5 mg/mL does not significantly inhibit the mycelial growth of <italic>Trichoderma</italic>. <italic>Trichoderma</italic> is known to tolerate relatively high concentrations of various synthetic and natural toxic compounds, relying on a complex system of membrane pumps that facilitate efficient cellular detoxification mechanisms (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Ruocco <italic>et al</italic>., 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Asad, 2022</xref>).</p>
				<p>The compatibility of <italic>T. harzianum</italic> with fungicides like Mancozeb has been reported in <italic>in vitro</italic> evaluations on basal media, where no inhibition of radial growth was observed at 25 and 50 mg/L<sup>−1</sup> after 192 and 240 hours of incubation, respectively (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Ajay <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Huilgol <italic>et al</italic>. (2022</xref>) also reported a 71.80% compatibility of</p>
				<p><italic>T. harzianum</italic> with Mancozeb, which aligns with the findings of this study. Several factors contribute to the tolerance of <italic>Trichoderma</italic> strains to pesticides, including changes in the function of oxidoreductase genes and ABC transporter genes, which enable <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp. to tolerate pesticides such as diclorvos, mancozeb, thiram, tebuconazole, and carbendazim (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Hu <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Hirpara <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Sun <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>).</p>
				<p>These results, in line with previous research, highlight the potential of <italic>Trichoderma</italic> strains combined with the active ingredients Captan and Mancozeb for integrated disease management, contributing to the shift toward agroecosystemfriendly agricultural practices. However, as these studies were conducted <italic>in vitro</italic>, further research is necessary in diverse production environments under specific phytopathogen pressures. It is also essential to understand the ecology of antagonistic fungi and conduct experiments in fungicide-free environments. In this context, evaluating the tolerance or resistance of <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp. to chemical fungicides is a critical step in including these fungi in biological control programs (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Garman <italic>et al</italic>., 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Adnan <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Alfiky <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>; Parraguirre <italic>et al</italic>., 2023; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">Zapata-Narváez <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>).</p>
				<p>The incompatibility between <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp. and the active ingredient Chlorothalonil poses significant challenges to implementing sustainable agricultural practices for producing healthy food (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Elshahawy <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>). This study found that the four <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp. strains evaluated were incompatible with Chlorothalonil at concentrations of 450, 900, and 1350 mg/L<sup>−1</sup>. These findings are consistent with the work of Gangopadhyay <italic>et al</italic>. (2009), which reported high toxicity of</p>
				<p>Chlorothalonil to <italic>T. viride</italic>, further corroborating the present study’s results by demonstrating Chlorothalonil’s incompatibility with the <italic>T. hamatum</italic> strain T-A12, even though it is a different species.</p>
				<p>Notably, the active ingredient Chlorothalonil is a widely used foliar fungicide worldwide. It functions as a polychlorinated aromatic compound with broadspectrum activity, disrupting cellular respiration and ATP synthesis in fungi, which can result in cell death (Cruz <italic>et al</italic>., 2022). These findings emphasize the importance of understanding fungicide toxicity in biological control agents like <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp., as demonstrated in the case of Chlorothalonil. Such incompatibility can hinder the development of integrated management strategies and limit farmers’ ability to effectively control crop diseases. The integration of plant protection technologies continues to play a vital role in enhancing agricultural productivity (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Shang <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Bokade <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>).</p>
				<p>According to the results, it is essential to examine a broader range of fungicide concentrations (Captan, Mancozeb, and Chlorothalonil) to determine optimal doses that balance toxicity and compatibility with additional <italic>Trichoderma</italic> species from various geographical regions. Further investigation into mechanisms such as gene expression, enzymatic activity, and cellular physiology related to the tolerance or susceptibility of <italic>Trichoderma</italic> strains to fungicides could uncover specific adaptations and aid in predicting the evolution of resistance. Additionally, validating these findings under field conditions is crucial to assess factors like soil composition, native microbiota, and climatic conditions that influence the compatibility between fungicides and <italic>Trichoderma</italic> in complex agricultural ecosystems.</p>
				<p>This research on the toxicity and compatibility of fungicides with <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp. native to the rhizospheres of avocado (<italic>Persea americana</italic>) and cinnamon (<italic>Cinnamomum verum</italic>) is highly significant in the context of agriculture. It provides a comprehensive assessment of the interaction between biological and chemical control agents, aiming to develop agricultural practices that reduce environmental impacts while enhancing the effectiveness and selection of microbial agents for biological control.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusions</title>
				<p>Treatments with varying concentrations of the fungicides Captan, Mancozeb, and Chlorothalonil revealed marked variability in terms of prevalence and toxicity toward the evaluated <italic>Trichoderma</italic> species. Higher concentrations proved significantly more toxic, while lower doses allowed for greater prevalence of the evaluated organisms.</p>
				<p>In the case of Mancozeb, a dose of 1800 mg L⁻¹ was highly toxic to the <italic>T. asperellum</italic> strain. This contact fungicide is generally effective against a broad spectrum of fungi that infect aerial plant organs.</p>
				<p>Captan, when applied at low concentrations, showed a variable reduction in the prevalence of the four <italic>Trichoderma</italic> strains, suggesting that compatibility is directly influenced by the dose used. Among the evaluated strains, <italic>T. harzianum</italic> exhibited the highest compatibility (89.35%), followed by <italic>T. koningiopsis</italic> and <italic>T. asperellum</italic>, particularly at a dose of 450 mg L⁻¹, where lower toxicity was observed. These findings highlight the importance of adjusting Captan doses to maximize fungicide efficacy without compromising the biological activity of <italic>Trichoderma</italic>, which is crucial for its integration into integrated management programs.</p>
				<p>Regarding Chlorothalonil, the <italic>T. harzianum</italic> strain T-H4 exhibited greater tolerance at a concentration of 450 mg L⁻¹; however, higher concentrations (900 and 1350 mg L⁻¹) were highly toxic, classified as levels 2 and 1, respectively. In contrast, the <italic>T. koningiopsis</italic> strain T-K11 was identified as the most susceptible to this active ingredient.</p>
				<p>The variability observed in the responses of the evaluated species underscores that not all have developed effective resistance or tolerance mechanisms to certain active ingredients, possibly due to specific selective pressures in their local environments. This finding reinforces the importance of comprehensively assessing the interaction between chemical fungicides and biological agents like <italic>Trichoderma</italic>. A deeper understanding of these interactions will enable the design of integrated management strategies that minimize reliance on chemical products and promote compatibility between biological agents and fungicides.</p>
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				<title>Conflict of interest</title>
				<p>The authors declare no conflict of interest.</p>
				<p>Funding</p>
				<p>This research received no external funding.</p>
				<p>Acknowledgments</p>
				<p>The authors thank the National Council of Humanities, Science, and Technology (CONA-CyT) No. 4746 and Laboratory 204 of the Agroecology Center at the Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla.</p>
				<p>Author Contributions</p>
				<p>Conceptualization, O.R.-A. and C.P.L.; methodology, C.A.C.P., C.P.L., and O.R.-A.; software, A.M.G. and A.C.C.; validation, O.R.-A. and A.R.T.; formal analysis, A.R.T., A.M.G., and O.R.-A.; investigation, A.C.C., A.M.G., and O.R.-A.; resources, O.R.-A., C.P.L., and A.R.T.; writing-original draft preparation, A.C.C., C.A.C.P., and A.M.G.; writing-review and editing, C.P.L. and O.R.-A.; visualization, O.R.-A., C.A.C.P., and A.R.T.; supervision, O.R.-A.; project administration, O.R.-A. and C.P.L.; funding acquisition, O.R.-A. and A.R.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.</p>
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