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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">rmfi</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Revista mexicana de fitopatología</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Rev. mex. fitopatol</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">0185-3309</issn>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2007-8080</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedad Mexicana de Fitopatología A.C.</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.18781/R.MEX.FIT.2307-1</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="other">00007</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artículo Científico</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Inhibición del crecimiento de <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> causante de antracnosis de café (<italic>Coffea arabica</italic>) por cepas nativas de <italic>Trichoderma</italic></article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Rubio-Sosa</surname>
						<given-names>Abimael</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Martínez-Bolaños</surname>
						<given-names>Misael</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Gómez-Leyva</surname>
						<given-names>Juan Florencio</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Lozano-Trejo</surname>
						<given-names>Salvador</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Castañeda-Hidalgo</surname>
						<given-names>Ernesto</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Diaz-Zorrilla</surname>
						<given-names>Gustavo Omar</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="original">TecNM-Instituto Tecnológico del Valle de Oaxaca. ITVO. Ex Hacienda de Nazareno Santa Cruz Xoxocotlán, CP 71230, Oaxaca, México;</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias, Km. 18 carretera Tapachula-Cachoatán, Rosario Izapa, Tuxtla Chico, Tapachula, C.P. 30870, Chiapas, México; </institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>3</label>
				<institution content-type="original">TecNM-Instituto Tecnológico de Tlajomulco. Km 10 carretera a San Miguel Cuyutlán, CP 45640, Tlajomulco de Zúñiga, Jalisco, México; </institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1">
					<label><italic>*</italic></label><bold>
 <italic>Autor de Correspondencia:</italic> 
</bold> Salvador Lozano Trejo <email>salvador.lt@voaxaca.tecnm.mx</email>
				</corresp>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>05</day>
				<month>06</month>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<season>May-Aug</season>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>43</volume>
			<issue>2</issue>
			<elocation-id>RMEXFIT23071</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>30</day>
					<month>08</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>04</day>
					<month>03</month>
					<year>2025</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
					<license-p>Este es un artículo publicado en acceso abierto bajo una licencia Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>RESUMEN</title>
				<p> </p>
				<sec>
					<title>Antecedentes/Objetivo. </title>
					<p>El objetivo del estudio fue aislar y caracterizar cepas nativas de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> provenientes de cultivos orgánicos de café arábica (<italic>Coffea arabica</italic>) en el estado de Oaxaca, así como evaluar su potencial de biocontrol <italic>in vitro</italic> contra <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> spp., agente causal de la antracnosis.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Materiales y Métodos. </title>
					<p>Se colectaron muestras de suelo y material vegetativo de parcelas de plantas de café, a partir de las cuales se aislaron cepas de hongos correspondientes al género <italic>Trichoderma</italic> y <italic>Colletotrichum</italic>. Se realizó la caracterización macroscópica, microscópica y se evaluó la tasa de crecimiento de cada uno de los aislamientos. Finalmente se realizó la caracterización molecular mediante secuenciación de la región ITS de RNAr. Para evaluar el potencial de biocontrol se hicieron pruebas de antagonismo entre las cepas de los dos géneros.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Resultados. </title>
					<p>Se identificaron siete especies diferentes: <italic>T. harzianum, T. pleuroticola, T. sulphureum, T. tomentosum, T. koningii, T. spirale</italic> y <italic>T. lentiforme</italic>. Estos últimos fueron los más abundantes. De ellos, se seleccionó y evaluó a <italic>T. lentiforme</italic> en su capacidad de inhibición <italic>in vitro</italic> contra tres especies de <italic>Colletotrichum</italic>. Se observó que es capaz de inhibir entre 20 y 80% el crecimiento del hongo.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Conclusión. </title>
					<p>Se destaca el potencial de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> como biocontrolador sobre <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> actuando de diferentes maneras ante este fitopatógeno. Esto, aporta al conocimiento sobre la diversidad de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> nativos de la región cafetalera del estado de Oaxaca. Además, esta comprensión más profunda, contribuye a enriquecer el conocimiento y a elegir dichas especies para futuros estudios en el biocontrol de fitopatógenos, con el fin de promover prácticas agrícolas sostenibles.</p>
				</sec>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
				<title>Palabras clave:</title>
				<kwd>Antagonista</kwd>
				<kwd>antracnosis</kwd>
				<kwd>control biológico</kwd>
				<kwd>ITS</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="10"/>
				<table-count count="2"/>
				<equation-count count="2"/>
				<ref-count count="60"/>
				<page-count count="0"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introducción</title>
			<p>El café (<italic>Coffea arabica</italic>) se cultiva en más de 80 países de América Latina, África y Asia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Coutiño <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>). En México se introdujo alrededor de 1790 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Medina-Meléndez <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>), convirtiéndose en una actividad de gran relevancia en términos de producción, valor comercial, económico y social (Santiago-Santiago, 2020). Oaxaca es uno de los principales estados productores de café y pionero en la producción de café orgánico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Valkila, 2009</xref>); por lo que la aplicación de bioinoculantes con propiedades de control biológico es una de las máximas prioridades en la producción agrícola limpia y sostenible (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">Vu y Tran, 2020</xref>).</p>
			<p><italic>Trichoderma</italic> es un hongo cosmopolita (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Herrera-Parra <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>), incluye más de 100 especies (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Savín-Molina <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>) y algunas de ellas se han estudiado para su uso como agentes de control biológico (BCA) contra patógenos de plantas (Kannangara y Dharmarathna, 2017), incluyendo contra <italic>Hemileia vastatrix</italic>, causante de la roya del cafeto (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Gomez-De La Cruz <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>). La importancia de este género radica en que algunas especies colonizan las raíces (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Contreras-Cornejo <italic>et al</italic>., 2009</xref>), donde compiten por espacio y nutrientes (Savín-Molina <italic>et al</italic>., 2021), promueven el crecimiento de las plantas e inducen resistencia sistémica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Andrade-Hoyos <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>); además, producen metabolitos secundarios que protegen las plantas contra hongos fitopatógenos a través de mecanismos que incluyen antibiosis y micoparasitismo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Yassin <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>). Por otro lado, la antracnosis, causada por <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> spp., es una de las enfermedades más comunes e importantes en el cultivo de café, debido a que causa pérdidas económicas importantes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Luo <italic>et al.,</italic> 2015</xref>).</p>
			<p>A pesar de que <italic>Trichoderma</italic> se ha evaluado durante más de 70 años como antagonista, su comercialización como biocontrolador agrícola se inició a principios del siglo XXI (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Pineda-Insuasti <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>). Existen estudios donde se ha utilizado como antagonista ante <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> en diferentes cultivos de interés económico como maracuyá (<italic>Passiflora edulis</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Niño y Mogollón, 2018</xref>), mango (<italic>Mangifera indica</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Díaz-Medina <italic>et al.,</italic> 2019</xref>), fresa (<italic>Fragaria × ananassa</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Morales-Mora <italic>et al.,</italic> 2020</xref>), entre otros. Sin embargo, existen pocos estudios sobre el efecto antagonista de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> ante <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> en plantaciones de café. Por otro lado, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Arias-Mota y Heredia-Abarca (2022</xref>), menciona que <italic>Trichoderma</italic> es una opción de control biológico amigable con el ambiente, además de contribuir al mantenimiento de cultivos orgánicos. Por lo que el objetivo del estudio fue caracterizar cepas de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp. nativas de Oaxaca y evaluar su potencial de biocontrol contra <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> spp., agente causal de la antracnosis en plantas de café.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="materials|methods">
			<title>Materiales y Métodos</title>
			<p><bold>Obtención de aislamientos de <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> y <italic>Trichoderma</italic>.</bold> Muestras de suelo se colectaron de parcelas de café arábico con manejo orgánico en los municipios San Bartolomé Loxicha, San Agustín Loxicha y Aguacate Loxicha del estado de Oaxaca. Los muestreos se realizaron mediante la metodología cinco de oros para completar una muestra compuesta de 100 g de suelo por sitio de estudio (un sitio por municipio). En laboratorio, las muestras se procesaron por el método de dilución de suelo en cajas Petri siguiendo la metodología de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Waksman (1927</xref>). A partir de una solución madre (10 mL</p>
			<p>agua destilada estéril: 1 g suelo) se obtuvo la dilución de 10<sup>-2</sup>, de la cual se tomó una alícuota de 0.1 mL y se esparció uniformemente sobre cajas Petri con Papa Dextrosa Agar (PDA). Las placas se incubaron a temperatura ambiente (25 °C) por 72 h y posteriormente, se cuantificó el número de colonias fúngicas formadas (15)<italic>.</italic> De cada una de las placas se aislaron colonias fúngicas (12) individuales para observar su morfología colonial y formación de estructuras reproductivas, las cuales permitieron identificar a nivel género (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Barnett y Hunter, 1998</xref>). Los aislamientos con morfología similar a <italic>Trichoderma</italic> se purificaron por punta de hifa en PDA. Finalmente, los aislamientos, se conservaron en glicerol hasta su proceso de reactivación.</p>
			<p>En forma paralela, en plantaciones comerciales de café arábico orgánico en Oaxaca (Municipio de San Agustín Loxicha) y Chiapas (Municipio de Unión Juárez), se colectaron frutos y hojas de café arábico variedad Bourbon con síntomas de antracnosis los cuales mostraban necrosis en sus tejidos. En laboratorio se cortaron dos fragmentos (1 cm<sup>2</sup>) del tejido enfermo de cada muestra, se esterilizaron con NaOCl al 1.5% durante 1 min, posteriormente se hizo triple lavado en agua destilada estéril y finalmente se secó en papel estéril. Los tejidos se incubaron en PDA a 25 °C durante 48 h; las colonias fúngicas desarrolladas se trasfirieron a nuevas placas de PDA para generar estructuras de reproducción que permitieron la identificación a género (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Cao <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Hassan <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Cristóbal-Martínez <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>). Del total de aislamientos obtenidos (11), para fines del presente estudio se seleccionaron (tres) aquellos aislamientos con morfología similar a <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> y que mostraron mayor tasa de crecimiento y mayor producción de conidios producidos por área de crecimiento miceliar.</p>
			<p>Caracterización macroscópica. Los aislamientos fúngicos seleccionados se reactivaron en PDA; luego de un periodo de incubación (siete días), se utilizaron para describir la morfología colonial externa. Se consideraron características como: textura (algodonoso, plano) y color del micelio (blanco, verde), formación de anillos concéntricos (presencia, ausencia) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Granda-Mora <italic>et al.,</italic> 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">García-Núñez <italic>et al.</italic>, 2017</xref>) y el color al reverso de las colonias (hialino, amarillo, café) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">López-Calva <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>).</p>
			<p>Caracterización microscópica. A partir de los aislamientos seleccionados tanto de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> como <italic>Colletotrichum</italic>, se realizaron preparaciones temporales con base glicerol y con un microscopio compuesto (Velab, modelo Ve-b2) a 40x y cámara digital (QUASAR) acoplada al microscopio, se fotografiaron esporas de cada uno de los aislamientos.</p>
			<p>Para la observación de las fiálides de <italic>Trichoderma</italic>, se realizaron microcultivos de acuerdo con el método de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">Vu y Tran (2020</xref>); para ello, en condiciones asépticas, sobre un portaobjetos estéril se colocó un disco (5 mm de diámetro) de PDA y con una aguja entomológica se tomaron masas de conidias de las colonias purificadas y se depositaron sobre el portaobjetos; posteriormente se colocó un cubreobjetos estéril y la preparación se colocó dentro de una placa Petri que contenía papel estéril húmedo. Las muestras se incubaron durante 4 a 5 días a 25 °C. Posteriormente, se observaron al microscopio y se tomaron fotografías, con el fin de observar la forma de las estructuras. Para determinar el tamaño, con el programa AmScope se tomaron fotografías de grupos de conidias por cada aislamiento y de ellos se midió el largo y ancho de 100 conidias; finalmente se obtuvo el promedio de la población evaluada.</p>
			<p>Tasa de crecimiento (TC). De cada aislamiento se tomó un disco de crecimiento miceliar (5 mm de diámetro) y se transfirió al centro de una nueva caja Petri con PDA; posteriormente se incubaron a 25 °C y se tomaron medidas diametrales cada 24 h hasta que el micelio cubriera por completo la superficie de la caja. Al finalizar el experimento se calculó la TC utilizando la fórmula de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Zadoks y Schein (1979</xref>).</p>
			<p>Dónde: Cf= Crecimiento diametral final (mm); Ci= Crecimiento diametral inicial (mm); Tf= Tiempo final (días); Ti= Tiempo inicial (día uno).</p>
			<p>Identificación molecular. Los aislamientos seleccionados se cultivaron en un medio líquido de papa sacarosa durante 7 días a temperatura ambiente (25 °C) y agitación continua. El ADN se extrajo del micelio de cada uno de los aislamientos, utilizando 1 g de micelio de acuerdo a la metodología modificada de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Castle <italic>et al.</italic> (1998</xref>). La integridad del ADN extraído se determinó mediante electroforesis en gel de agarosa al 1%.</p>
			<p>La mezcla de reacción de PCR se realizó en un volumen final de 25 μL, la cual contenía 50 pM del ADN genómico, 10X Buffer, 2 mM MgCl2, 0.2 mM del mix dNTPs,</p>
			<p>1 U de la enzima Taq DNA polimerasa y 50 pM de los iniciadores ITS1 (5′- TCCGTAGGTGAACCTGCG-3′) e ITS4 (5′-TCCTCCGCTTATTGATATGC-3′)</p>
			<p>(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Aljanabi y Martínez, 1997</xref>). El programa de amplificación, consistió en 1 ciclo de 94 °C por 6 min, 35 ciclos de 94 °C por 1 min, 55 °C por 1 min, 72 °C por 1 min y un ciclo de 72 °C por 7 min y se procedió a visualizarla en un gel de agarosa al 1.2 % en una cámara de electroforesis (Bio-Rad®) a 100 V por 30 min. La purificación de ADN amplificado se llevó a cabo con un kit comercial (ZymocleanTM), y la secuenciación se llevó a cabo siguiendo la metodología Sanger con la aplicación del kit BigDye® Terminator v3.1 Cycle Sequencing, en un secuenciador ABI 3130.</p>
			<p>Reconstrucción filogenética. El análisis bioinformático de las secuencias se realizó con el software MEGA11 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Tamura <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>) y se alinearon mediante el algoritmo de agrupación W. Las secuencias obtenidas se compararon con secuencias de otras especies de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> incluidas en el GenBank utilizando la herramienta básica de búsqueda BLAST (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/BLAST)">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/BLAST),</ext-link> y las secuencias con mayor similitud se utilizaron para asignar la identificación de especie a cada cepa aislada. El árbol filogenético se ensambló empleando el método Bootstrap (1000 repeticiones), con secuencias obtenidas del GenBank y secuencias de identificación molecular referenciadas en el GeneBank de la base de datos del National Center Biotechnology Information (NCBI).</p>
			<p>Pruebas de antagonismo. Para determinar la capacidad antagónica de los aislamientos, se realizaron pruebas de confrontamientos duales; para ello, se empleó un diseño completamente aleatorizado. Se utilizaron tres aislamientos de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> (T13, T14 y T15; con mayor TC y conidios observados), y tres aislamientos de <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> (112,108 y Z1), cada confrontamiento se repitió tres veces. En placas Petri de 90 mm de diámetro con PDA, se colocó un disco de 5 mm de diámetro de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> (previamente crecido en PDA por cinco días) en un extremo de la caja y en el extremo equidistante un disco de micelio (previamente crecido en PDA por cinco días) de 5 mm de diámetro con <italic>Colletotrichum</italic>, para ello se depositaron primero los discos de <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> y cuatro días después los de <italic>Trichoderma</italic>. Las cajas se incubaron a 25 °C y el crecimiento radial se registró cada 24 h para evaluar el porcentaje de inhibición del crecimiento micelial mediante la fórmula propuesta por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Ezziyyani <italic>et al.</italic> (2007</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<disp-formula>
					<mml:math>
						<mml:mi>P</mml:mi>
						<mml:mi>I</mml:mi>
						<mml:mi>C</mml:mi>
						<mml:mi>R</mml:mi>
						<mml:mi>%</mml:mi>
						<mml:mo>=</mml:mo>
						<mml:mfrac>
							<mml:mrow>
								<mml:mfenced separators="|">
									<mml:mrow>
										<mml:mi>R</mml:mi>
										<mml:mn>1</mml:mn>
										<mml:mo>-</mml:mo>
										<mml:mi>R</mml:mi>
										<mml:mn>2</mml:mn>
									</mml:mrow>
								</mml:mfenced>
							</mml:mrow>
							<mml:mrow>
								<mml:mi>R</mml:mi>
								<mml:mn>1</mml:mn>
							</mml:mrow>
						</mml:mfrac>
						<mml:mn>100</mml:mn>
					</mml:math>
				</disp-formula>
			</p>
			<p>Dónde: PICR= porcentaje de inhibición de crecimiento radial; R1= crecimiento radial (mm) del patógeno sin <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp. R2= crecimiento radial (mm) del hongo con <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp.</p>
			<p>Análisis estadístico. Los datos obtenidos para cada uno de los ensayos cumplieron los supuestos de normalidad y homogeneidad y se sometieron a un análisis de varianza y una prueba de comparación de medias Tukey (p≤ 0.05). Dichos datos se analizaron con el paquete estadístico SAS versión 9.0 para Windows. A excepción de la TC los datos obtenidos se transformaron a raíz cuadrada +1 para cumplir con los supuestos de normalidad y homogeneidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Toutenburg y Shalabh, 2009</xref>), similar a lo realizado por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Savín-Molina <italic>et al.</italic> (2021</xref>).</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="results|discussion">
			<title>Resultados y Discusión</title>
			<p>Caracterización macroscópica. Se caracterizaron 12 aislamientos de <italic>Trichoderma</italic>, de las cuales el 41.6% presentó una colonia color verde (T2, T6, T13, T14 y T15) y el 58.4% mostró tonalidad blanca (T3, T4, T5, T7, T9, T10 y T12); el 50% desarrolló micelio plano (T2, T5, T6 T13, T14 y T15) y el otro 50% micelio algodonoso (T3, T4, T7, T9, T10 y T12); el 50% no presentó anillos concéntricos (T2, T3, T4, T5, T9 y T10), el 8.4% un anillo concéntrico (T7), el 25% dos anillos concéntricos (T6, T12 y T13) y el 16.6% restante presentaron tres anillos (T14 y T15). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Arias-Mota y Heredia-Abarca (2022</xref>) mencionan que de 438 especies de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> descritas a nivel mundial, 30 han sido registradas asociadas a plantas de café, todas con heterogeneidad en sus características morfológicas; por ello <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Hermosa <italic>et al.</italic> (2000</xref>) resalta la importancia de realizar estudios moleculares para tener un análisis con mayor certeza taxonómica. Las cepas T2, T4, T5, T6 y T12 presentaron micelio hialino (41.6%); las cepas T3, T7, T9 y T10 mostraron tonos de color amarillo (33.4%) y las cepas T13, T14 y T15 tuvieron tonalidades de color café (25%) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>). La coloración de los aislamientos puede estar influenciada por antraquinonas, los cuales son los pigmentos fúngicos naturales más abundantes que dan color a las estructuras de desarrollo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">Yu y Keller 2005</xref>). La cepa T6 presentó aroma intenso a coco (8.4%) y puede estar asociada a la presencia de 6-penta-alfa-pirona, la cual ha sido reportada para <italic>T. harzianum</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Rocha-Valdez <italic>et al</italic>., 2005</xref>). Con respecto a los aislamientos de <italic>Colletotrichum</italic>, los aislamientos Z1 y 112 presentaron colonia color blanco y el aislamiento 108 presentó color gris; todos los aislamientos presentaron forma circular; con respecto al micelio algodonoso se presentó en Z1 y 112; y plano en 108; la coloración del micelio fue blanco en Z1 y 112, y gris en 108 (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f1">
					<label>Figura 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Caracterización macroscópica de 12 aislamientos de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> en PDA.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-02-RMEXFIT23071-gf1.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f2">
					<label>Figura 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Caracterización macroscópica de tres aislamientos de <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> en PDA.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-02-RMEXFIT23071-gf2.gif"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>Caracterización microscópica. De los 12 aislamientos de <italic>Trichoderma</italic>, el 33.4% presentaron conidios de forma subglobosa (T2, T4, T7 y T12); 25% mostraron forma elipsoidal (T5, T6 y T9) y 25% conidios de forma globosa (T13. T14 y T15). El tamaño de los conidios osciló entre 7.91-10.21 µm de largo y de 6.65-7.83 µm de ancho (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Cuadro 1</xref>). Todas las cepas produjeron cantidades similares de conidios, lo cual es atribuible a su desarrollo en condiciones ambientales homogéneas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Osorio-Concepción <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>); sin embargo, existieron cepas que no produjeron conidios, esto puede deberse a su condición genética (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Martínez <italic>et al.,</italic> 2013</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Harman (1990</xref>) menciona que los aislados pertenecientes a la misma especie difieren en la producción de estructuras fúngicas durante la multiplicación, incluso en el mismo medio de cultivo, lo que denotaría la presencia de diferentes subespecies o ecotipos. Los aislamientos obtenidos y seleccionados a partir de tejidos de café con síntomas de antracnosis, presentaron conidios de forma ovoide con un largo entre 10.3 - 13.3 µm y ancho entre 3.3 - 4.5 µm. Estas características, junto con las variables de tasa de crecimiento, color de colonia y forma de los apresorios, se utilizan para diferenciar especies de <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Hu <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Hyde <italic>et al</italic>., 2009</xref>). Otro criterio utilizado para separar o agrupar posibles especies, se basa principalmente en su planta hospedera (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Cano <italic>et al</italic>., 2004</xref>). Sin embargo, de 39 especies reportadas por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Sutton (1992</xref>) dentro de este género, el autor señala que su separación o reconocimiento entre especies no es del todo claro, pero permite dar un acercamiento a su identificación.</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t1">
					<label>Cuadro 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Caracterización y tasa de crecimiento de los diferentes aislamientos de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp.</title>
					</caption>
					<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th colspan="8" style="border-bottom:0px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Conidios</th>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:0px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Cepaz</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:0px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Forma</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:0px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Largo (µm)</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:0px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Ancho (µm)</th>
								<th colspan="4" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:0px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Tasa de crecimiento</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style:italic">T. sulphureum (T4) </td>
								<td>Subglobosa </td>
								<td>9.89 </td>
								<td>7.14 </td>
								<td>2.95 </td>
								<td>± </td>
								<td>0.09 </td>
								<td>a </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style:italic">T. lentiforme (T15) </td>
								<td>Globosa </td>
								<td>8.64 </td>
								<td>7.07 </td>
								<td>2.66 </td>
								<td>± </td>
								<td>0.38 </td>
								<td>a </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style:italic">T. sulphureum (T5) </td>
								<td>Elipsoidal </td>
								<td>9.93 </td>
								<td>7.51 </td>
								<td>2.60 </td>
								<td>± </td>
								<td>0.30 </td>
								<td>a </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style:italic">T. spiralek (T3) </td>
								<td>ND </td>
								<td>ND </td>
								<td>ND </td>
								<td>2.51 </td>
								<td>± </td>
								<td>0.06 </td>
								<td>ab </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style:italic">T. harzianum (T7) </td>
								<td>Subglobosa </td>
								<td>8.05 </td>
								<td>6.69 </td>
								<td>2.45 </td>
								<td>± </td>
								<td>0.06 </td>
								<td>abc </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style:italic">T. lentiforme (T13) </td>
								<td>Globosa </td>
								<td>7.91 </td>
								<td>6.71 </td>
								<td>2.31 </td>
								<td>± </td>
								<td>0.01 </td>
								<td>abcd </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style:italic">T. lentiforme (T14) </td>
								<td>Globosa </td>
								<td>8.22 </td>
								<td>6.92 </td>
								<td>2.30 </td>
								<td>± </td>
								<td>0.01 </td>
								<td>abcd </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style:italic">T. koningii (T6) </td>
								<td>Elipsoidal </td>
								<td>9.53 </td>
								<td>7.83 </td>
								<td>2.28 </td>
								<td>± </td>
								<td>0.06 </td>
								<td>abcd </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style:italic">T. spirale (T9) </td>
								<td>Elipsoidal </td>
								<td>10.22 </td>
								<td>6.66 </td>
								<td>2.23 </td>
								<td>± </td>
								<td>0.04 </td>
								<td>abcd </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style:italic">T. pleuroticola (T2) </td>
								<td>Subglobosa </td>
								<td>9.06 </td>
								<td>7.72 </td>
								<td>1.78 </td>
								<td>± </td>
								<td>0.01 </td>
								<td>bcd </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style:italic">T. tomentosum (T12) </td>
								<td>Subglobosa </td>
								<td>9.84 </td>
								<td>7.5 </td>
								<td>1.74 </td>
								<td>± </td>
								<td>0.01 </td>
								<td>dc </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="font-style:italic">T. spirale (T10) </td>
								<td>ND </td>
								<td>ND </td>
								<td>ND </td>
								<td>1.69 </td>
								<td>± </td>
								<td>0.02 </td>
								<td>dc </td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN1">
							<p>zDeterminada por secuenciación de la región ITS del rDNA. ND. No determinada. Letras diferentes significa diferencia significativa entre tratamientos de acuerdo con la prueba de Tukey p≤0.05.</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>Tasa de crecimiento (TC). Dentro de los aislamientos correspondientes al género <italic>Trichoderma</italic>, los que mostraron mayor velocidad de crecimiento significativa fueron T4, T5 y T15 (Tukey, 0.05). El aislamiento T4 tuvo un mayor crecimiento diametral con 1.3 mm día<sup>-1</sup> de diferencia con respecto al aislamiento T10 que tuvo menor crecimiento diametral del total de los aislamientos (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Cuadro 1</xref>).</p>
			<p>El crecimiento acelerado es característico de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp. lo que permite competir por espacio y nutrientes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Sánchez <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>). Por lo tanto, la TC es una herramienta fisiológica útil para predecir la habilidad de biocontrol de nuevos aislamientos de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Uzunovic y Webber, 1998</xref>).</p>
			<p>Con respecto a la tasa de crecimiento de <italic>Colletotrichum,</italic> el aislamiento Z1 presentó valores significativamente diferentes (Tukey, 0.05) con respecto al aislamiento 108 y 112, puesto que el aislamiento Z1 cubrió la placa Petri de 9 cm de diámetro en siete días, en comparación con los aislamientos 108 y 112 que alcanzaron su máximo crecimiento hasta los 11 días después de la inoculación.</p>
			<p>Identificación molecular. En el presente estudio, los productos obtenidos de la amplificación tuvieron un tamaño promedio de 620 pb (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>A). Al comparar las secuencias con la base de datos del GeneBank, se determinó un porcentaje de identidad que oscilaron entre 98.62 y 99.99 % con las especies identificadas (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Cuadro 1</xref>) como: <italic>Trichoderma harzianum</italic> (T7), <italic>T. spirale</italic> (T3, T9 y T10)<italic>, T. lentiforme</italic> (T13, T14 y T15)<italic>,</italic></p>
			<p><italic>T. pleuroticola</italic> (T2), <italic>T. sulphureum</italic> (T4 y T5), <italic>T. tomentosum</italic> (T12) y <italic>T. koningii</italic> (T6).</p>
			<p><italic>T. koningii</italic> y <italic>T. harzianum</italic> se han reportado asociadas a sistemas agroforestales de café (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Belayneh-Mulaw <italic>et al.,</italic> 2010</xref>). Ahedo-Quero <italic>et al</italic>. (2024) señalan 57 especies de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> reportadas en México, de las cuales 12 corresponden al cultivo de café, siendo el cultivo con mayor diversidad. Sin embargo, en esta investigación <italic>T. lentiforme</italic> y <italic>T. sulphureum</italic> se reportan por primera vez en México en suelos cafetaleros con manejo orgánico.</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f3">
					<label>Figura 3</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Árbol filogenético. A) Productos de amplificación por PCR de la región ITS del ADNr con los oligonucleotidos universales ITS1 e ITS4 de aproximadamente 620 pb. B) Relación filogenética de 12 aislamientos de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> inferido por análisis de secuencias de ADNr (ITS1, 58S y ITS2). Los números en los nodos representan el porcentaje del bootstrapping con 1,000 repeticiones.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-02-RMEXFIT23071-gf3.gif"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>Los marcadores moleculares desempeñan un papel crucial en la identificación molecular de <italic>Trichoderma</italic>, en nuestros resultados la secuencia de los espaciadores internos transcritos (ITS) fueron adecuados para diferenciar los diferentes aislados de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> lo que coincide con otros estudios para esta región del rRNA (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Islam <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>). La topología del árbol filogenético fue generada empleando el método neighbor- joining con las secuencias de los aislamientos, se incluyó el número de accesión de la secuencia de referencia del GeneBank mayor al 98% de similitud. En el árbol generado se aprecian 7 grupos separados por especie (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>B); además, se observa una relación intra específica en dos grupos predominantes con <italic>T. spirale</italic> (T3, T9 y T10) y <italic>T. lentiforme</italic> (T13, T14 y T15). Adicional al conocimiento de la diversidad de <italic>Trichoderma</italic>, este estudio es de interés por las aplicaciones biotecnológicas que puedan tener las cepas colectadas para el biocontrol de <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> sp.</p>
			<p>La importancia del género <italic>Trichoderma</italic> como agente de control biológico implica mecanismos de acción como competencia por sustrato, micoparasitismo y antibiosis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Revilla-Medina <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Rolz Asturias <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>). Para la especie <italic>T. spirale</italic>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Baiyee <italic>et al</italic>. (2019</xref>) demostraron que su potencial como agente de biocontrol se debe a su competencia por espacio, los antifúngicos volátiles y las actividades enzimáticas. En un estudio reciente, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Ye <italic>et al</italic>. (2023</xref>) indicaron que un compuesto extraído de <italic>T. spirale</italic>, tiene un fuerte efecto inhibidor sobre <italic>Candida albicans</italic>; por lo que la función de estos microorganismos no se limita al efecto en la salud y desarrollo de las plantas. <italic>Trichoderma koningii</italic> es una especie que gracias a su versatilidad funciona como biocontrol de fitopatógenos de suelos y foliares, obtenido entre un 70-100% de control bajo condiciones de invernadero (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Nina <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>).</p>
			<p>La caracterización molecular mostró que los tres aislamientos de <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> corresponden a diferentes especies: <italic>C. gloeosporioides</italic> (Z1), <italic>C. siamense</italic> (108) y <italic>C. aenigma</italic> (112) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 4</xref>). Dos (<italic>C. gloeosporioides</italic> y <italic>C. siamense)</italic> de estas tres especies identificadas en el presente estudio fueron previamente reportadas en el cultivo de café arábico como patógenas y afectando hojas y/o frutos (Cristobal-Martínez <italic>et al</italic>., 2016) en México; así como en Asia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Damm <italic>et al</italic>., 2012</xref>) y Brasil (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Prihastuti <italic>et al</italic>., 2009</xref>). Mientras que <italic>C. aenigma</italic>, especie agrupada dentro del complejo <italic>C. gloeosporioides</italic>, no ha sido reportada en el cultivo de café arábico, por lo que podría considerarse el primer reporte de esta especie; sin embargo, debido a la complejidad para la identificación de especies de <italic>Colletotrichum</italic>, consideramos necesario realizar la caracterización molecular con el uso de secuencias multilocus adicionales a ITS (Cristobal-Martínez <italic>et al</italic>., 2016; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">Zhu <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>) para aseverar la identificación de esta especie.</p>
			<p>Pruebas de antagonismo. La inhibición del crecimiento micelial de <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> sp., se observó en su mayoría al cuarto día de incubación; corroborando el rápido crecimiento de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> y su potencial para inhibir el crecimiento micelial del fitopatógeno (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fernández y Suárez, 2009</xref>). El mayor porcentaje de inhibición del crecimiento miceliar de <italic>C. siamense</italic> (108) se observó al interaccionar con el aislamiento T15 de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> (Tukey, 0.05). En la interacción de las cepas de Trichoderma (T13, T14 y T15) con los aislamientos de <italic>C. gloeosporioides</italic> (Z1), <italic>C. siamense</italic> (108) y <italic>C. aenigma</italic> (112), se observó un cambio de color del medio de cultivo en la zona de interacción de los micelios de ambos microorganismos. Posteriormente las cepas de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> crecieron sobre el micelio de <italic>Colletotrichum</italic>; esta respuesta es un primer indicativo de su potencial como microorganismos hiperparásitos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Hernández-Mendoza <italic>et al.,</italic> 2011</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f4">
					<label>Figura 4</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Dendrograma de relación filogenética de 10 aislamientos de <italic>Colletotrichum</italic>.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-02-RMEXFIT23071-gf4.gif"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>La esporulación de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> sobre el micelio de <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> se observó solamente en la interacción <italic>T. lentiforme</italic> (T14) - <italic>C. siamense</italic> (108). La capacidad antagonista de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> para inhibir el crecimiento de <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> ha sido reportada de manera previa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Morales-Mora <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). En la <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figura 5</xref> se muestran las diferentes respuestas de inhibición del crecimiento miceliar de los aislamientos de <italic>Coletotrichum</italic> al evaluar nuestros aislamientos de <italic>Trichoderma</italic>. Esta inhibición del crecimiento se atribuye a la producción de metabolitos como quitinasas, glucanasas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Sánchez-García <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>) y a la secreción de antibióticos u otras sustancias inhibidoras que producen las cepas antagónicas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Al-Mekhlafi <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f5">
					<label>Figura 5</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Confrontación dual entre cepas de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp. (T13, T14 y T15) y cepas de <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> spp. (Z1, 108 y 112). Números debajo de los aislamientos representa el PICR (porcentaje de inhibición de crecimiento radial).</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-02-RMEXFIT23071-gf5.gif"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusiones</title>
			<p>Se identificaron siete especies de <italic>Trichoderma</italic>: <italic>T. harzianum, T. spirale, T. lentiforme,</italic></p>
			<p><italic>T. pleuroticola, T. sulphureum, T. tomentosum</italic>, y <italic>T. koningii</italic>, las cuales se distinguieron por su rápido desarrollo mostrando el característico color verde del género y presentando anillos concéntricos en algunos aislamientos. Cabe destacar el potencial de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> como biocontrolador sobre <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> actuando de diferentes maneras ante este fitopatógeno. Esto, aporta al conocimiento sobre la diversidad de <italic>Trichoderma</italic> nativos de la región cafetalera del estado de Oaxaca. Además, esta comprensión más profunda, contribuye a enriquecer el conocimiento y a elegir dichas especies para futuros estudios en el biocontrol de fitopatógenos, con el fin de promover prácticas agrícolas sostenibles.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
		<ack>
			<title>Conflictos de interés</title>
			<p>No existen conflictos de interés.</p>
			<p> </p>
			<p>Financiación</p>
			<p>Para el desarrollo de este proyecto no hubo financiación externa, se realizó con los esfuerzos institucionales de investigación conjunta en acuerdos de colaboración académico científica.</p>
			<p> </p>
			<p>Agradecimientos</p>
			<p>Agradecemos a CONAHCYT por la beca otorgada para el investigador estudiante del posgrado. Igualmente, a los doctores involucrados en el estado de Oaxaca (ITVO/TECNM), Chiapas (INIFAP) y Jalisco (ITT/TECNM).</p>
			<p> </p>
			<p>Contribución de los autores</p>
			<p>Concepción, Abimael Rubio Sosa.; conceptualización, Misael Martínez Bolaños.; metodología, Abimael Rubio Sosa, Misael Martínez Bolaños; Validación, Misael Martínez Bolaños, Salvador Lozano Trejo, Ernesto Castañeda Hidalgo y Gustavo Omar Diaz Zorrilla.; análisis formal, Abimael Rubio Sosa, Misael Martínez Bolaños; investigación, Abimael Rubio Sosa.; curación de datos, Juan Florencio Gómez Leyva; redacción: preparación del borrador original, Abimael Rubio Sosa.; redacción: revisión y edición, Misael Martínez Bolaños. Salvador Lozano Trejo, Ernesto Castañeda Hidalgo; visualización, Misael Martínez Bolaños, Salvador Lozano Trejo; supervisión, Misael Martínez Bolaños, Salvador Lozano Trejo. Todos los autores han leído y aceptado la versión publicada del manuscrito.</p>
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				<mixed-citation>Zhu ZX, Dong ZX, Mo RL, Zhang C, Zuo YY and Hu XM. 2023. First report of <italic>Colletotrichum aenigma</italic> causing anthracnose on mulberry leaves in China. Plant disease, 571.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Zhu</surname>
							<given-names>ZX</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Dong</surname>
							<given-names>ZX</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Mo</surname>
							<given-names>RL</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Zhang</surname>
							<given-names>C</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Zuo</surname>
							<given-names>YY</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hu</surname>
							<given-names>XM.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2023</year>
					<article-title>First report of Colletotrichum aenigma causing anthracnose on mulberry leaves in China</article-title>
					<source>Plant disease</source>
					<fpage>571</fpage>
					<lpage>571</lpage>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
		</ref-list>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="en">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Scientific Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Inhibition of <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> spp. causing anthracnose in coffee (<italic>Coffea arabica</italic>) using native isolates of <italic>Trichoderma</italic> sp.</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<abstract>
				<title>ABSTRACT</title>
				<p> </p>
				<sec>
					<title>Background/Objective. </title>
					<p>The objective of the study was to isolate and characterize native isolate of <italic>Trichoderma</italic> from organic crops of Arabica coffee (<italic>Coffea arabica</italic>) in Oaxaca state, as well as to evaluate their <italic>in vitro</italic> biocontrol potential against <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> spp., causal agent of anthracnose.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Materials y Methods. </title>
					<p>Soil and vegetative material samples were collected from coffee plant plots, from which fungal strains corresponding to the genera <italic>Trichoderma</italic> and <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> were isolated. Macroscopic and microscopic characterization was performed and the growth rate of each of the isolates was evaluated. Finally, molecular characterization was performed by sequencing the ITS region of rRNA. To evaluate the biocontrol potential, antagonism tests were performed between the isolates of the two genera.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Results. </title>
					<p>Seven different species were identified: <italic>T. harzianum</italic>, <italic>T. pleuroticola</italic>, <italic>T. sulphureum</italic>, <italic>T. tomentosum</italic>, <italic>T. koningii</italic>, <italic>T. spirale</italic> and <italic>T. lentiforme</italic>. The latter were the most abundant. Of these, <italic>T. lentiforme</italic> was selected and evaluated for its <italic>in vitro</italic> inhibition capacity against three <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> spp. It was observed that the growth of the fungus was inhibited by 20 to 80%.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Conclusion. </title>
					<p>The potential of <italic>Trichoderma</italic> as a biocontrol agent for <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> spp. is highlighted, acting in different ways against this phytopathogen. This contributes to the knowledge about the diversity of native <italic>Trichoderma</italic> species, to the coffee-growing region of the state of Oaxaca. In addition, this deeper knowledge contributes to enriching knowledge and choosing these species for future studies in the biocontrol of phytopathogens, in order to promote sustainable agricultural practices.</p>
				</sec>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>Antagonist</kwd>
				<kwd>Anthracnose</kwd>
				<kwd>Biological Control</kwd>
				<kwd>ITS</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introduction</title>
				<p>The coffee plant (<italic>Coffea arabica</italic>) is cultivated in more than 80 countries across Latin America, Africa, and Asia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Coutiño <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>). In Mexico, it was introduced around 1790 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Medina-Meléndez <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>) and has since become a highly significant activity in terms of production, commercial value, and economic and social impact (Santiago- Santiago, 2020). Oaxaca is one of the leading coffee-producing states and a pioneer in organic coffee production (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Valkila, 2009</xref>). Therefore, the application of bioinoculants with biocontrol properties is a top priority for clean and sustainable agricultural production (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">Vu and Tran, 2020</xref>).</p>
				<p><italic>Trichoderma</italic> is a cosmopolitan fungus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Herrera-Parra <italic>et al.</italic>, 2017</xref>) that includes more than 100 species (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Savín-Molina <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>), some of which have been studied for use as biological control agents (BCAs) against plant pathogens (Kannangara and Dharmarathna, 2017), including <italic>Hemileia vastatrix</italic>, the causal agent of coffee rust (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Gomez-De La Cruz <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>). The significance of this genus lies in the ability of certain species to colonize roots (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Contreras-Cornejo <italic>et al</italic>., 2009</xref>), where they compete for space and nutrients (Savín-Molina <italic>et al</italic>., 2021), promote plant growth, and induce systemic resistance (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Andrade-Hoyos <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Additionally, they produce secondary metabolites that protect plants from phytopathogenic fungi through mechanisms such as antibiosis and mycoparasitism (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Yassin <italic>et al.,</italic> 2022</xref>). On the other hand, anthracnose, caused by <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> sp., is one of the most common and significant diseases in coffee cultivation, as it leads to considerable economic losses (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Luo <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>).</p>
				<p>Although <italic>Trichoderma</italic> has been studied as an antagonist for more than 70 years, its commercialization as an agricultural biocontrol agent began in the early 21st century (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Pineda-Insuasti <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>). Several studies have evaluated its antagonistic effects against <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> in economically important crops such as passion fruit (<italic>Passiflora edulis</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Niño and Mogollón, 2018</xref>), mango (<italic>Mangifera indica</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Díaz-Medina <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>), and strawberry (<italic>Fragaria × ananassa</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Morales-Mora <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>), among others. However, there are few studies on the antagonistic effect of <italic>Trichoderma</italic> against <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> in coffee plantations.</p>
				<p>Additionally, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Arias-Mota and Heredia-Abarca (2022</xref>) state that <italic>Trichoderma</italic> is an environmentally friendly biological control option that also supports the maintenance of organic crops. Therefore, the objective of this study was to characterize native isolates of <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp. from Oaxaca and evaluate their biocontrol potential against <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> spp., the causal agent of anthracnose in coffee plants.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="materials|methods">
				<title>Materials and Methods</title>
				<p><bold>Isolation of <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> and <italic>Trichoderma</italic> isolates.</bold> Soil samples were collected from organically managed <italic>Coffea arabica</italic> plots in the municipalities of San Bartolomé Loxicha, San Agustín Loxicha, and Aguacate Loxicha in the state of Oaxaca. Sampling followed the &quot;five of diamonds&quot; methodology to obtain a composite sample of 100 g of soil per study site (one site per municipality). In the laboratory, samples were processed using the soil dilution method on Petri dishes, following <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Waksman’s (1927</xref>) methodology. A stock solution (10 mL sterile distilled water: 1 g soil) was prepared, from which a 10⁻² dilution was obtained. A 0.1 mL aliquot was evenly spread onto Petri dishes containing Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA). The plates were incubated at room temperature (25 °C) for 72 h, after which the number of fungal colonies formed (15) was quantified. Individual fungal colonies (12) were isolated from each plate to observe their colonial morphology and reproductive structures, enabling genus-level identification (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Barnett and Hunter, 1998</xref>). Isolates with morphology similar to <italic>Trichoderma</italic> were purified by hyphal tip culture on PDA. Finally, the isolates were preserved in glycerol until further reactivation.</p>
				<p>Simultaneously, in commercial organic <italic>Coffea arabica</italic> plantations in Oaxaca (San Agustín Loxicha Municipality) and Chiapas (Unión Juárez Municipality), coffee fruits and leaves of the <italic>Bourbon</italic> variety showing anthracnose symptoms, such as necrotic tissue, were collected. In the laboratory, two fragments (1 cm²) of diseased tissue were cut from each sample, sterilized with 1.5% NaOCl for 1 min, rinsed three times with sterile distilled water, and dried on sterile paper. The tissues were incubated on PDA at 25 °C for 48 h. Developed fungal colonies were transferred to new PDA plates to promote the formation of reproductive structures for genus-level identification (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Cao <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Hassan <italic>et al.,</italic> 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Cristóbal-Martínez <italic>et al.</italic>, 2017</xref>). Of the total isolates obtained (11), three with morphology similar to <italic>Colletotrichum</italic>, exhibiting the highest growth rate and conidia production per unit of mycelial growth, were selected for this study.</p>
				<p>Macroscopic characterization. The selected fungal isolates were reactivated on PDA. After a seven-day incubation period, they were used to describe external colonial morphology. The evaluated characteristics included texture (cottony, flat) and mycelium color (white, green), the presence or absence of concentric ring formation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Granda-Mora <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">García-Núñez <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>), and the reverse colony color (hyaline, yellow, brown) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">López-Calva <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>).</p>
				<p>Microscopic characterization. From the selected isolates of both <italic>Trichoderma</italic> and <italic>Colletotrichum</italic>, temporary glycerol-based preparations were made. Using a compound microscope (Velab, model Ve-b2) at 40× magnification and a digital camera (QUASAR) attached to the microscope, spores from each isolate were photographed.</p>
				<p>To observe the phialides of <italic>Trichoderma</italic>, microcultures were prepared following the method of <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">Vu &amp; Tran (2020</xref>). Under aseptic conditions, a 5 mm diameter PDA disk was placed on a sterile slide. Using an entomological needle, conidial masses from purified colonies were transferred onto the slide. A sterile coverslip was then placed over the preparation, which was placed inside a Petri dish containing moist sterile paper. The samples were incubated at 25 °C for 4 to 5 days. Subsequently, microscopic observations were made, and photographs were taken to examine the structures.</p>
				<p>To determine conidial size, photographs of conidial groups from each isolate were taken using the AmScope software. The length and width of 100 conidia were measured, and the average size of the evaluated population was calculated.</p>
				<p>Growth rate (GR). From each isolate, a 5 mm diameter mycelial growth disk was taken and transferred to the center of a new Petri dish containing PDA. The plates were then incubated at 25 °C, and diametric measurements were recorded every 24 hours until the mycelium completely covered the surface of the dish. At the end of the experiment, the growth rate (GR) was calculated using the formula proposed by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Zadoks and Schein (1979</xref>).</p>
				<p>Where: Cf = Final diametric growth (mm); Ci = Initial diametric growth (mm); Tf = Final time (days); Ti = Initial time (day one).</p>
				<p>Molecular identification. The selected isolates were cultivated in a liquid potato sucrose medium for seven days at room temperature (25 °C) with continuous agitation. DNA was extracted from the mycelium of each isolate using 1 g of mycelium, following a modified version of the methodology by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Castle <italic>et al.</italic> (1998</xref>). The integrity of the extracted DNA was determined by electrophoresis on a 1% agarose gel.</p>
				<p>The PCR reaction mixture was prepared in a final volume of 25 μL, containing 50 pM of genomic DNA, 10X Buffer, 2 mM MgCl₂, 0.2 mM dNTP mix, 1 U of <italic>Taq</italic> DNA polymerase, and 50 pM of the primers ITS1 (5′-TCCGTAGGTGAACCTGCG-3′) and ITS4 (5′-TCCTCCGCTTATTGATATGC-3′) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Aljanabi and Martínez, 1997</xref>). The amplification program consisted of one cycle at 94 °C for 6 min, followed by 35 cycles at 94 °C for 1 min, 55 °C for 1 min, and 72 °C for 1 min, with a final extension at 72 °C for 7 min. The PCR products were visualized on a 1.2% agarose gel in an electrophoresis chamber (Bio-Rad®) at 100 V for 30 min. The amplified DNA was purified using a commercial kit (Zymoclean™), and sequencing was performed using the Sanger method with the BigDye<sup>®</sup> Terminator v3.1 Cycle Sequencing Kit on an ABI 3130 sequencer.</p>
				<p>Phylogenetic reconstruction. The bioinformatic analysis of the sequences was performed using MEGA11 software (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Tamura et al., 2021</xref>) and aligned using the cluster W algorithm. The obtained sequences were compared with those of other <italic>Trichoderma</italic> species available in GenBank using the BLAST search tool (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/BLAST">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/BLAST</ext-link>). The sequences with the highest similarity were used to assign species identification to each isolated strain. The phylogenetic tree was constructed using the Bootstrap method (1000 replicates), incorporating sequences obtained from GenBank and molecular identification sequences referenced in the GeneBank database of the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI).</p>
				<p>Antagonism tests. To determine the antagonistic capacity of the isolates, dual confrontation tests were performed using a completely randomized design. Three <italic>Trichoderma</italic> isolates (T13, T14, and T15, selected for their higher growth rate and conidial production) and three <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> isolates (112, 108, and Z1) were used. Each confrontation was repeated three times. In 90 mm diameter Petri dishes containing PDA, a 5 mm diameter disk of <italic>Trichoderma</italic> (previously grown on PDA for five days) was placed at one end of the dish, while an equidistant 5 mm diameter mycelial disk of <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> (also previously grown on PDA for five days) was placed at the opposite end. The <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> disks were placed first, followed by the <italic>Trichoderma</italic> disks four days later. The plates were incubated at 25 °C, and radial growth was recorded every 24 hours to evaluate the percentage of mycelial growth inhibition using the formula proposed by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Ezziyyani <italic>et al</italic>. (2007</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<disp-formula>
						<mml:math>
							<mml:mi>P</mml:mi>
							<mml:mi>I</mml:mi>
							<mml:mi>C</mml:mi>
							<mml:mi>R</mml:mi>
							<mml:mi>%</mml:mi>
							<mml:mo>=</mml:mo>
							<mml:mfrac>
								<mml:mrow>
									<mml:mfenced separators="|">
										<mml:mrow>
											<mml:mi>R</mml:mi>
											<mml:mn>1</mml:mn>
											<mml:mo>-</mml:mo>
											<mml:mi>R</mml:mi>
											<mml:mn>2</mml:mn>
										</mml:mrow>
									</mml:mfenced>
								</mml:mrow>
								<mml:mrow>
									<mml:mi>R</mml:mi>
									<mml:mn>1</mml:mn>
								</mml:mrow>
							</mml:mfrac>
							<mml:mn>100</mml:mn>
						</mml:math>
					</disp-formula>
				</p>
				<p>Where: <bold>PICR</bold> = Percentage of inhibition of radial growth; <bold>R1</bold> = Radial growth (mm) of the pathogen without <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp.; <bold>R2</bold> = Radial growth (mm) of the fungus with <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp.</p>
				<p>Statistical analysis. The data obtained from each experiment met the assumptions of normality and homogeneity and were subjected to an analysis of variance (ANOVA) and a Tukey’s multiple comparison test (<italic>p</italic> ≤ 0.05). The analysis was performed using the SAS statistical software, version 9.0 for Windows. For the growth rate (GR), the data were transformed using the square root +1 method to meet the assumptions of normality and homogeneity (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Toutenburg and Shalabh, 2009</xref>), similar to the approach used by Savín- Molina <italic>et al</italic>. (2021).</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="results|discussion">
				<title>Results and Discussion</title>
				<p>Macroscopic characterization. Twelve <italic>Trichoderma</italic> isolates were characterized, of which 41.6% exhibited green colonies (T2, T6, T13, T14, and T15), while 58.4% showed a white coloration (T3, T4, T5, T7, T9, T10, and T12). Half of the isolates developed flat mycelium (T2, T5, T6, T13, T14, and T15), while the other half presented cottony mycelium (T3, T4, T7, T9, T10, and T12). Additionally, 50% of the isolates did not display concentric rings (T2, T3, T4, T5, T9, and T10), 8.4% showed one concentric ring (T7), 25% exhibited two concentric rings (T6, T12, and T13), and the remaining 16.6% presented three rings (T14 and T15).</p>
				<p>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Arias-Mota and Heredia-Abarca (2022</xref>) state that of the 438 <italic>Trichoderma</italic> species described worldwide, 30 have been recorded in association with coffee plants, all exhibiting morphological heterogeneity. Therefore, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Hermosa <italic>et al</italic>. (2000</xref>) emphasize the importance of conducting molecular studies for more precise taxonomic classification. The isolates T2, T4, T5, T6, and T12 exhibited hyaline mycelium (41.6%), while T3, T7, T9, and T10 displayed yellowish tones (33.4%), and T13, T14, and T15 showed brown coloration (25%) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>). The coloration of the isolates may be influenced by anthraquinones, which are the most abundant natural fungal pigments responsible for the coloration of developmental structures (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">Yu and Keller, 2005</xref>).</p>
				<p>Isolate T6 exhibited an intense coconut-like aroma (8.4%), which may be associated with the presence of 6-penta-alpha-pyrone, a compound previously reported in <italic>T. harzianum</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Rocha-Valdez <italic>et al</italic>., 2005</xref>). Regarding the <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> isolates, Z1 and 112 presented white colonies, while isolate 108 exhibited a gray coloration. All isolates had a circular shape. Cottony mycelium was observed in Z1 and 112, whereas isolate 108 displayed flat mycelium. The mycelium color was white in Z1 and 112, and gray in 108 (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f6">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Macroscopic characterization of 12 <italic>Trichoderma</italic> isolates on PDA.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-02-RMEXFIT23071-gf6.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f7">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Macroscopic characterization of three <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> Isolates on PDA.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-02-RMEXFIT23071-gf7.gif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Microscopic characterization. Of the 12 <italic>Trichoderma</italic> isolates, 33.4% exhibited subglobose conidia (T2, T4, T7, and T12), 25% displayed an ellipsoidal shape (T5, T6, and T9), and another 25% had globose conidia (T13, T14, and T15). The conidial size ranged from 7.91 to 10.21 µm in length and 6.65 to 7.83 µm in width (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 1</xref>). All isolates produced similar amounts of conidia, which can be attributed to their development under homogeneous environmental conditions (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Osorio-Concepción <italic>et al.,</italic> 2013</xref>). However, some strains did not produce conidia, which may be due to their genetic condition (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Martínez <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t2">
						<label>Table 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Characterization and growth rate of different <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp. Isolates.</title>
						</caption>
						<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th colspan="8" style="border-bottom:0px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Conidium</th>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:0px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Isolatez</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:0px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Shape</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:0px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Lenght (µm)</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:0px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">width (µm)</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:0px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;"> </th>
									<th colspan="2" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:0px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Growth rate</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:0px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;"/>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style:italic">T. sulphureum (T4) </td>
									<td>Subglobose </td>
									<td>9.89 </td>
									<td>7.14 </td>
									<td>2.95 </td>
									<td>± </td>
									<td>0.09 </td>
									<td>a </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style:italic">T. lentiforme (T15) </td>
									<td>Globose </td>
									<td>8.64 </td>
									<td>7.07 </td>
									<td>2.66 </td>
									<td>± </td>
									<td>0.38 </td>
									<td>a </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style:italic">T. sulphureum (T5) </td>
									<td>Ellipsoidal </td>
									<td>9.93 </td>
									<td>7.51 </td>
									<td>2.60 </td>
									<td>± </td>
									<td>0.30 </td>
									<td>a </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style:italic">T. spiralek (T3) </td>
									<td>ND </td>
									<td>ND </td>
									<td>ND </td>
									<td>2.51 </td>
									<td>± </td>
									<td>0.06 </td>
									<td>ab </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style:italic">T. harzianum (T7) </td>
									<td>Subglobose </td>
									<td>8.05 </td>
									<td>6.69 </td>
									<td>2.45 </td>
									<td>± </td>
									<td>0.06 </td>
									<td>abc </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style:italic">T. lentiforme (T13) </td>
									<td>Globose </td>
									<td>7.91 </td>
									<td>6.71 </td>
									<td>2.31 </td>
									<td>± </td>
									<td>0.01 </td>
									<td>abcd </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style:italic">T. lentiforme (T14) </td>
									<td>Globose </td>
									<td>8.22 </td>
									<td>6.92 </td>
									<td>2.30 </td>
									<td>± </td>
									<td>0.01 </td>
									<td>abcd </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style:italic">T. koningii (T6) </td>
									<td>Ellipsoidal </td>
									<td>9.53 </td>
									<td>7.83 </td>
									<td>2.28 </td>
									<td>± </td>
									<td>0.06 </td>
									<td>abcd </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style:italic">T. spirale (T9) </td>
									<td>Ellipsoidal </td>
									<td>10.22 </td>
									<td>6.66 </td>
									<td>2.23 </td>
									<td>± </td>
									<td>0.04 </td>
									<td>abcd </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style:italic">T. pleuroticola (T2) </td>
									<td>Subglobose </td>
									<td>9.06 </td>
									<td>7.72 </td>
									<td>1.78 </td>
									<td>± </td>
									<td>0.01 </td>
									<td>bcd </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style:italic">T. tomentosum (T12) </td>
									<td>Subglobose </td>
									<td>9.84 </td>
									<td>7.5 </td>
									<td>1.74 </td>
									<td>± </td>
									<td>0.01 </td>
									<td>dc </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td style="font-style:italic">T. spirale (T10) </td>
									<td>ND </td>
									<td>ND </td>
									<td>ND </td>
									<td>1.69 </td>
									<td>± </td>
									<td>0.02 </td>
									<td>dc </td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN2">
								<p>z Determined by sequencing of the ITS region of rDNA. ND: Not determined. Different letters indicate significant differences between treatments according to Tukey’s test (<italic>p</italic> ≤ 0.05).</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Harman (1990</xref>) states that isolates belonging to the same species may differ in the production of fungal structures during multiplication, even when grown in the same culture medium. This variability could indicate the presence of different subspecies or ecotypes. The isolates obtained and selected from coffee tissues showing anthracnose symptoms had ovoid conidia, measuring between 10.3 and 13.3 µm in length and 3.3 to</p>
				<p>4.5 µm in width. These characteristics, along with growth rate, colony color, and appressorium shape, are used to differentiate <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> species (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Hu <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Hyde et al., 2009</xref>). Another criterion for distinguishing or grouping potential species is primarily based on their host plant (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Cano <italic>et al</italic>., 2004</xref>). However, of the 39 species reported by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Sutton (1992</xref>) within this genus, the author notes that species delimitation and recognition remain unclear, though these traits provide an initial approach to identification.</p>
				<p>Growth rate (GR). Among the isolates belonging to the <italic>Trichoderma</italic> genus, T4, T5, and T15 exhibited the highest significant growth rates (<italic>p</italic> ≤ 0.05, Tukey). Isolate T4 showed the greatest diametric growth, with a difference of 1.3 mm day⁻¹ compared to isolate T10, which had the lowest diametric growth among all isolates (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 1</xref>).</p>
				<p>The rapid growth characteristic of <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp. enables it to compete for space and nutrients (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Sánchez et al., 2015</xref>). Therefore, growth rate (GR) serves as a useful physiological tool for predicting the biocontrol potential of new <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp. isolates (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Uzunovic and Webber, 1998</xref>).</p>
				<p>Regarding the growth rate of <italic>Colletotrichum</italic>, isolate Z1 exhibited significantly different values (<italic>p</italic> ≤ 0.05, Tukey) compared to isolates 108 and 112. Isolate Z1 completely covered the 9 cm diameter Petri dish within seven days, whereas isolates 108 and 112 reached their maximum growth only after 11 days of inoculation.</p>
				<p>Molecular identification. In this study, the amplification products had an average size of 620 bp (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>A). By comparing the sequences with the GeneBank database, identity percentages ranged from 98.62% to 99.99%, identifying the species (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 1</xref>) as <italic>Trichoderma harzianum</italic> (T7), <italic>T. spirale</italic> (T3, T9, and T10), <italic>T. lentiforme</italic> (T13, T14, and T15), <italic>T. pleuroticola</italic> (T2), <italic>T. sulphureum</italic> (T4 and T5), <italic>T. tomentosum</italic> (T12), and <italic>T. koningii</italic> (T6). <italic>T. koningii</italic> and <italic>T. harzianum</italic> have been reported in coffee agroforestry systems (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Belayneh-Mulaw <italic>et al.,</italic> 2010</xref>). Ahedo-Quero <italic>et al</italic>. (2024) list 57 <italic>Trichoderma</italic></p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f8">
						<label>Figure 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Phylogenetic tree. A) PCR amplification products of the ITS region of rDNA using the universal primers ITS1 and ITS4, yielding approximately 620 bp. B) Phylogenetic relationship of 12 Trichoderma isolates inferred from rDNA sequence analysis (ITS1, 5.8S, and ITS2). The numbers at the nodes represent the bootstrap percentage based on 1,000 replicates.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-02-RMEXFIT23071-gf8.gif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>species reported in Mexico, 12 of which are associated with coffee cultivation, making it the crop with the greatest diversity. However, in this study, <italic>T. lentiforme</italic> and <italic>T. sulphureum</italic> are reported for the first time in Mexico in organically managed coffee soils. Molecular markers play a crucial role in the molecular identification of <italic>Trichoderma</italic>.</p>
				<p>In our results, the sequences of the internal transcribed spacers (ITS) were suitable for differentiating the various <italic>Trichoderma</italic> isolates, consistent with other studies on this rRNA region (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Islam <italic>et al.,</italic> 2022</xref>). The phylogenetic tree topology was generated using the neighbor-joining method with the isolate sequences, including the accession number of the GeneBank reference sequence with more than 98% similarity. The generated tree shows seven species-separated groups (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>B), with an intraspecific relationship observed in two predominant groups: <italic>T. spirale</italic> (T3, T9, and T10) and <italic>T. lentiforme</italic> (T13, T14, and T15).</p>
				<p>Beyond contributing to the knowledge of <italic>Trichoderma</italic> diversity, this study is particularly relevant for the biotechnological applications of the collected isolates in the biocontrol of <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> sp.</p>
				<p>The importance of the genus <italic>Trichoderma</italic> as a biological control agent involves mechanisms of action such as substrate competition, mycoparasitism, and antibiosis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Revilla-Medina <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Rolz Asturias <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>). For the species <italic>T. spirale</italic>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Baiyee <italic>et al</italic>. (2019</xref>) demonstrated that its biocontrol potential is due to its competition for space, volatile antifungal compounds, and enzymatic activities. In a recent study, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Ye <italic>et al</italic>. (2023</xref>) reported that a compound extracted from <italic>T. spirale</italic> exhibits a strong inhibitory effect on <italic>Candida albicans</italic>, indicating that the role of these microorganisms is not limited to plant health and development. <italic>Trichoderma koningii</italic> is a highly versatile species that functions as a biocontrol agent against both soilborne and foliar phytopathogens, achieving 70-100% control under greenhouse conditions (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Nina <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>).</p>
				<p>Molecular characterization revealed that the three <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> isolates belong to different species: <italic>C. gloeosporioides</italic> (Z1), <italic>C. siamense</italic> (108), and <italic>C. aenigma</italic> (112) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref>). Two of these species (<italic>C. gloeosporioides</italic> and <italic>C. siamense</italic>) were previously reported as pathogens affecting leaves and/or fruits of Arabica coffee crops in Mexico (Cristobal-Martínez <italic>et al.,</italic> 2016), as well as in Asia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Damm <italic>et al</italic>., 2012</xref>) and Brazil (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Prihastuti <italic>et al</italic>., 2009</xref>). In contrast, <italic>C. aenigma</italic>, a species within the <italic>C. gloeosporioides</italic> complex, has not been reported in Arabica coffee crops, suggesting this may be the first report of its occurrence. However, given the complexity of <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> species identification, we consider it necessary to conduct molecular characterization using multilocus sequences beyond ITS (Cristobal-Martínez <italic>et al</italic>., 2016; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">Zhu <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>) to confirm the identification of this species.</p>
				<p>Antagonism tests. The inhibition of <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> sp. mycelial growth was mostly observed on the fourth day of incubation, confirming the rapid growth of <italic>Trichoderma</italic> and its potential to inhibit the mycelial development of the phytopathogen (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fernández and Suárez, 2009</xref>). The highest percentage of <italic>C. siamense</italic> (108) mycelial growth inhibition was observed in its interaction with the <italic>Trichoderma</italic> isolate T15 (Tukey, 0.05). In the interaction of <italic>Trichoderma</italic> strains (T13, T14, and T15) with <italic>C. gloeosporioides</italic> (Z1), <italic>C. siamense</italic> (108), and <italic>C. aenigma</italic> (112), a color change in the culture medium was observed at the interaction zone of both microorganisms' mycelia. Subsequently, <italic>Trichoderma</italic> isolates overgrew the <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> mycelium, a response that serves as an initial indication of their potential as hyperparasitic microorganisms (Hernández- Mendoza <italic>et al</italic>., 2011).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f9">
						<label>Figure 4</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Phylogenetic relationship dendrogram of 10 <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> isolates.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-02-RMEXFIT23071-gf9.gif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Sporulation of <italic>Trichoderma</italic> on <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> mycelium was observed only in the <italic>T. lentiforme</italic> (T14) - <italic>C. siamense</italic> (108) interaction. The antagonistic capacity of <italic>Trichoderma</italic> to inhibit <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> growth has been previously reported (Morales- Mora <italic>et al.,</italic> 2020). <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 5</xref> presents the different mycelial growth inhibition responses of <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> isolates when evaluated against our <italic>Trichoderma</italic> isolates. This growth inhibition is attributed to the production of metabolites such as chitinases and glucanases (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Sánchez-García <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>), as well as the secretion of antibiotics or other inhibitory substances produced by antagonistic isolates (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Al-Mekhlafi <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f10">
						<label>Figure 5</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Dual confrontation between <italic>Trichoderma</italic> spp. isolates (T13, T14, and T15) and <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> spp. isolates (Z1, 108, and 112). The numbers below the isolates represent the PICR (percentage of radial growth inhibition).</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-02-RMEXFIT23071-gf10.gif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusions</title>
				<p>Seven <italic>Trichoderma</italic> species were identified: <italic>T. harzianum</italic>, <italic>T. spirale</italic>, <italic>T. lentiforme</italic>, <italic>T. pleuroticola</italic>, <italic>T. sulphureum</italic>, <italic>T. tomentosum</italic>, and <italic>T. koningii</italic>. These species were distinguished by their rapid growth, displaying the characteristic green coloration of the genus and concentric rings in some isolates. Notably, <italic>Trichoderma</italic> demonstrated its potential as a biocontrol agent against <italic>Colletotrichum</italic>, acting through different mechanisms against this phytopathogen. This study contributes to the understanding of the diversity of native <italic>Trichoderma</italic> species in the coffee-growing region of Oaxaca. Furthermore, this deeper insight enhances knowledge and supports the selection of these species for future studies on the biocontrol of phytopathogens, aiming to promote sustainable agricultural practices.</p>
			</sec>
		</body>
		<back>
			<ack>
				<title>Conflicts of interest</title>
				<p>There are no conflicts of interest.</p>
				<p> </p>
				<p>Funding</p>
				<p>This project received no external funding and was carried out through institutional efforts within the framework of joint research and academic-scientific collaboration agreements.</p>
				<p> </p>
				<p>Acknowledgments</p>
				<p>We thank CONAHCYT for the scholarship awarded to the graduate student researcher. We also extend our gratitude to the doctors involved in the states of Oaxaca (ITVO/TECNM), Chiapas (INIFAP), and Jalisco (ITT/TECNM).</p>
				<p> </p>
				<p>Author Contributions</p>
				<p>Conceptualization: Abimael Rubio Sosa; methodology: Abimael Rubio Sosa, Misael Martínez Bolaños; validation: Misael Martínez Bolaños, Salvador Lozano Trejo, Ernesto Castañeda Hidalgo, and Gustavo Omar Diaz Zorrilla; formal analysis: Abimael Rubio Sosa, Misael Martínez Bolaños; investigation: Abimael Rubio Sosa; data curation: Juan Florencio Gómez Leyva; writing-original draft preparation: Abimael Rubio Sosa; writing-review and editing: Misael Martínez Bolaños, Salvador Lozano Trejo, Ernesto Castañeda Hidalgo; visualization: Misael Martínez Bolaños, Salvador Lozano Trejo; supervision: Misael Martínez Bolaños, Salvador Lozano Trejo. All authors have read and approved the published version of the manuscript.</p>
			</ack>
		</back>
	</sub-article>
</article>