<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article
  PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.1 20151215//EN" "https://jats.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/1.1/JATS-journalpublishing1.dtd">
<article article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="es" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">rmfi</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Revista mexicana de fitopatología</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Rev. mex. fitopatol</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">0185-3309</issn>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2007-8080</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedad Mexicana de Fitopatología A.C.</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.18781/R.MEX.FIT.2406-2</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="other">00009</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artículo Científico</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Caracterización y sensibilidad a fungicidas de hongos causantes de deterioro postcosecha en <italic>Allium sativum,</italic> Nuevo León, México</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Ramírez-Jiménez</surname>
						<given-names>Germán</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Alvarado-Gómez</surname>
						<given-names>Omar G.</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Torres-de la Cruz</surname>
						<given-names>Magdiel</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1">*</xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Mayo- Hernández</surname>
						<given-names>Miguel Ángel</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Huamán-Pilco</surname>
						<given-names>Ángel F.</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Díaz-Valderrama</surname>
						<given-names>Jorge R.</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Facultad de Agronomía, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León. Av. Universidad s/n, Ciudad Universitaria, C.P. 66455, San Nicolás de los Garza, Nuevo León, México. </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<city>San Nicolás de los Garza</city>
					<state>Nuevo León</state>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="original">División Académica de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco. Km. 0.5 Carretera Villahermosa-Cárdenas, CP 86150, Villahermosa, Tabasco, México. </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<postal-code>86150</postal-code>
					<city>Villahermosa</city>
					<state>Tabasco</state>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>3</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Instituto de Investigación para el Desarrollo Sustentable de Ceja de Selva, Universidad Nacional Toribio Rodríguez de Mendoza de Amazonas, Calle Higos Urco 342, CP 01001, Chachapoyas, Amazonas, Perú.</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidad Nacional Toribio Rodríguez de Mendoza de Amazonas</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Nacional Toribio Rodríguez de Mendoza de Amazonas,</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<city>Chachapoyas</city>
					<state>Amazonas</state>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="PE">Peru</country>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1"><italic>Autor de correspondencia:</italic> Magdiel Torres-de la Cruz <email>biomag75@hotmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>02</day>
				<month>06</month>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<season>May-Aug</season>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>43</volume>
			<issue>2</issue>
			<elocation-id>RMEXFIT24062</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>07</day>
					<month>06</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>07</day>
					<month>02</month>
					<year>2025</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
					<license-p>Este es un artículo publicado en acceso abierto bajo una licencia Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>RESUMEN</title>
				<p> </p>
				<sec>
					<title>Antecedentes/Objetivo. </title>
					<p>El ajo (<italic>Allium sativum</italic>) es un cultivo de relevancia económica en México. Nuevo León destaca en producción; sin embargo, en el municipio de Aramberri se han reportado pérdidas en postcosecha debido a enfermedades de etiología desconocida. El objetivo de este trabajo fue identificar los hongos asociados al deterioro postcosecha de bulbos de <italic>A. sativum</italic> en Aramberri, Nuevo León, México y evaluar <italic>in vitro</italic> su sensibilidad a fungicidas.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Materiales y Métodos. </title>
					<p>A partir de bulbos con evidencias de deterioro y necrosis se realizó el aislamiento de hongos en medio PDA. Cuatro aislamientos se identificaron mediante análisis morfológico y un aislamiento de cada especie morfológica se identificó mediante análisis molecular. Se evaluó la patogenicidad de los cuatro aislamientos sobre bulbillos libres de síntomas. Además, se realizaron pruebas de sensibilidad in vitro de los aislamientos a fungicidas protectantes y sistémicos. Los fungicidas se evaluaron a tres concentraciones y se estimó la inhibición del crecimiento micelial (CRM) y de la germinación de conidios (GDC).</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Resultados. </title>
					<p>Se identificaron a los hongos <italic>Alternaria embellisia</italic> y <italic>Penicillium allii</italic> asociadas a bulbos de <italic>A. sativum</italic> con deterioro en poscosecha. <italic>P. allii</italic> mostró capacidad para desarrollar infecciones internas a partir de heridas; <italic>A. embellisia</italic> sólo mostró crecimiento sobre las heridas. Hubo diferencias significativas (p &lt;0.0001) en la efectividad de los fungicidas sobre las dos especies. El propiconazol y el hidróxido de cobre inhibieron al 100 % el CRM y la GEC en ambos hongos, en todas las dosis evaluadas.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Conclusión</title>
					<p>. Se reporta por primera vez a <italic>P. allii</italic> como agente causal de pudrición verde del ajo en México. Este estudio servirá de base para elegir estrategias de control y contribuirá significativamente a reducir las pérdidas económicas en la producción de ajo en esta región.</p>
				</sec>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
				<title>Palabras clave:</title>
				<kwd>germinación</kwd>
				<kwd>propiconazol</kwd>
				<kwd>tebuconazol.</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="10"/>
				<table-count count="4"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="39"/>
				<page-count count="0"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introducción</title>
			<p>El ajo (<italic>Allium sativum</italic>) es una planta de la familia Amaryllidaceae y es un cultivo de importancia económica, valorada por sus propiedades medicinales y culinarias. A nivel mundial, en el año 2023, el cultivo de <italic>A. sativum</italic> alcanzó una producción de 28.6 millones de toneladas y un rendimiento de 17 t ha<sup>-1</sup> (FAOSTAT, 2024). Esta planta produce metabolitos secundarios con efectos antioxidantes, antiinflamatorios e hipolipemiantes, los cuales contribuyen a la salud humana (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Ansary <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). México ocupa un lugar importante en la producción mundial de <italic>A. sativum</italic> con una superficie establecida de 7,123 h y un rendimiento medio de 12.6 t ha<sup>-1</sup> (SIAP, 2023). Nuevo León ocupa el quinto lugar en producción de ajo con 289 ha y un rendimiento de 11.9 t ha<sup>-1</sup>, donde el municipio de Aramberri concentra la mayor producción, generando empleos y una captación económica significativa (SEDAGRO, 2023).</p>
			<p>La producción de ajo presenta pérdidas en postcosecha debido a la pudrición de los bulbos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Sholberg y Conway, 2016</xref>). Diversos hongos han sido reportados como agentes causales: <italic>Sclerotium cepivorum</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Burba, 2003</xref>), <italic>Alternaria embellisia</italic> (syn. <italic>Embellisia allii</italic>), <italic>Botrytis porri</italic>, <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Dugan <italic>et al</italic>., 2007</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Khatoon <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref><italic>)</italic>, <italic>A. ochraceus</italic>, <italic>Fusarium oxysporum</italic>, <italic>F. proliferatum</italic>, <italic>Penicillium hirsutum</italic> (Dugan <italic>et al</italic>., 2007), <italic>P. allii</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Valdez <italic>et al</italic>., 2009</xref>), <italic>F. solani</italic> y <italic>Stemphylium vesicarium</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Gálvez y Palmero, 2021</xref>).</p>
			<p>En México existe poca información sobre hongos que atacan a <italic>A. sativum</italic> en condiciones de almacén. No obstante, se han reportado algunos hongos asociados a bulbos obtenidos directamente de campo: <italic>Fusarium verticilloides</italic>, <italic>F. acuminatum</italic>, <italic>F. solani</italic> y <italic>F. oxysporum</italic> (Ochoa-Fuentes <italic>et al</italic>., 2012). En bulbos almacenados se han reportado las especies <italic>P. hirsutum</italic>, <italic>P. citrinum</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Hernández-Anguiano <italic>et al</italic>. (2006</xref>), <italic>A. embellisia</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Delgado-Ortiz <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>) y a los taxas <italic>Ulocladium</italic> sp<italic>., Curvularia</italic> sp<italic>.</italic> y <italic>Verticillium</italic> sp<italic>.</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Velásquez-Valle <italic>et al.,</italic> 2017</xref>). Estos reportes se han generado en los estados de Aguascalientes, Guanajuato, Coahuila y Zacatecas, respectivamente. Algunas patologías de <italic>A. sativum</italic> inician su proceso infectivo durante el desarrollo de las plantas en campo y progresan durante el periodo de almacenamiento; además, algunos patógenos pueden permanecer latentes y desarrollarse durante postcosecha (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Chrétien <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). Así, el control efectivo requiere un sistema de control integrado del cultivo donde la elección y uso de productos fitosanitarios eficientes pueden contribuir a disminuir la incidencia de las enfermedades postcosechas.</p>
			<p>En el estado de Nuevo León, síntomas de pudrición de bulbos fueron observados bajo condiciones de almacén, en diferentes parcelas de La Ascensión, Aramberri. Esta patología se observó a partir del año 2017 y los síntomas y signos incluyeron cancro en bulbos, manchas en catáfilas, hifas negras y moho verde; sin embargo, no se conoce el o los agentes causales de estas infecciones en los bulbos en condiciones de almacén. Por lo</p>
			<p>anterior, el objetivo de este trabajo fue identificar los hongos asociados al deterioro postcosecha de bulbos de <italic>A. sativum</italic> en Aramberri, Nuevo León, México y evaluar <italic>in vitro</italic> su sensibilidad a fungicidas. El conocimiento del agente causal y de la eficiencia de fungicidas contribuirán a la toma de decisiones para el control de enfermedades en fase postcosechas de <italic>A. sativum</italic>.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="materials|methods">
			<title>Materiales y Métodos</title>
			<p>Muestreo y aislamiento de los hongos. En enero de 2022 se obtuvieron cinco muestras de bulbos de ajo infestados, de la Variedad “Don Fermín”, provenientes de cuatro almacenes de productores de La Ascensión, Aramberri, Nuevo León, México. Los bulbos recolectados presentaron evidencias de deterioro y necrosis. Las muestras fueron colocadas en bolsas de polietileno herméticas y se transportaron en neveras al Laboratorio Fitopatología de la Facultad de Agronomía de la Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León para su procesamiento.</p>
			<p>Cinco bulbos infectados se lavaron con agua destilada estéril (ADE) y se desinfestaron de forma individual con alcohol al 70 % e hipoclorito de sodio al 1 % durante 1 min. Posteriormente se hicieron dos enjuagues de dos minutos cada uno, con ADE. Cinco fragmentos sintomáticos de cada bulbo se cortaron y colocaron en medio papa dextrosa agar (PDA). Las cajas Petri con los inóculos se incubaron a 25 ± 1 °C por 7 d en oscuridad. Un fragmento del medio de cultivo con micelio fue transferido a otra caja Petri con medio PDA. A partir de estos aislamientos poliespóricos se obtuvieron aislamientos monospóricos. Para ello, se preparó una suspensión de conidios a una concentración de 1x10<sup>3</sup> conidios mL<sup>-1</sup> y se colocaron 50 µL en cajas con medio PDA. Las cajas con los conidios se incubaron a 25 °C y se observaron a partir de las 12 horas hasta localizar conidios germinados y aislados de otros conidios. La fracción de agar con el conidio se delimitó, se cortó y se transfirió a una nueva caja de con medio PDA para el desarrollo del aislamiento monospórico, según los procedimientos de SENASICA (2016).</p>
			<p>Identificación morfológica. La identificación a nivel de género y especie morfológica se realizó con base en las características de las colonias y en la micromorfología, de acuerdo con <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Vincent y Pitt (1989</xref>), <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Valdez <italic>et al.</italic> (2006</xref>), <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Lee <italic>et al.</italic> (2002</xref>) y Woudenberg <italic>et al.</italic> (2013). Para tal efecto, se utilizaron aislamientos monospóricos de 7 d de crecimiento en medio PDA. El tamaño de la colonia, la forma y la producción de conidios fueron las características macroscópicas evaluadas. Adicionalmente se obtuvieron estructuras microscópicas inoculando una suspensión de esporas sobre fragmentos de medio PDA, al cual se le colocó un cubreobjeto estéril y se incubó en cámara húmeda. La morfología de conidióforos, fiálides, conidios, y clamidosporas se observó en un microscopio ZEISS Scope.A1 en 40X. La fotodocumentación de estructuras microscópicas y la micrometría se realizaron con el Software ZEN lite<sup>®</sup>.</p>
			<p>Identificación molecular. De cada especie identificada por morfología, se utilizó un aislamiento para la identificación molecular. La extracción de ADN se realizó por el método del CTAB, a partir de cultivos monospóricos de 7 d. La concentración de ADN se estimó por espectrofotometría (NanoDrop 2000, Thermo Scientific<sup>®)</sup>. Posteriormente, se obtuvieron secuencias de dos regiones, amplificadas por PCR: la región ITS1-5.8S- ITS2 del DNAr nuclear (ITS) para la especie morfológica <italic>A. embellisia</italic>, y la secuencia</p>
			<p>parcial del gen ß-tubulina (B-<italic>TUB</italic>) para <italic>P. allii</italic>. La región ITS fue amplificada utilizando los cebadores ITS5 (5’-GCA AGT AAA AGT CGT AAC AAG G-3’) e ITS4 (5’-TCC</p>
			<p>TCC GCT TAT TGA TAT GC-3’). La amplificación parcial del gen β-tubulina se llevó a cabo usando los cebadores Bt2a (5´-GGT AAC CAA ATC GGT GCT GCT TTC-3’) y Bt2b (5’-ACC CTC AGT GTA GTG ACC CTT GGC-3’). Ambos genes se amplificaron bajo las siguientes condiciones de PCR: Un ciclo de 94 °C por 2 min, 40 ciclos de 94 °C por 30 s 40 ciclos de 55 °C por 45 s, 40 ciclos de 72 °C por 90 s y un ciclo de extensión final de 72 °C durante 4 min. Las reacciones de amplificación fueron llevadas a cabo en volúmenes de 25 µL conteniendo amortiguador a 1X, MgCl2 1.5 mM, dNTP 0.2 mM, cebadores 0.4 µM de cada uno (IDT), enzima Taq DNA polimerasa 1 unidad (Promega) y 20 ng de ADN. Los amplicones se enviaron para su purificación y secuenciación a la compañía Psomagen (EUA). Las secuencias obtenidas se compararon con secuencias de la base de datos de secuencias no redundantes del <italic>National Center for Biotechnology Information</italic> (NCBI). Para el análisis filogenético, las secuencias se alinearon con MUSCLE (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Edgar, 2004</xref>) implementado en MEGA-X (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Kumar <italic>et al.,</italic> 2018</xref>). Se utilizó jModelTest v2 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Darriba <italic>et al.,</italic> 2012</xref>) para identificar el modelo de evolución de nucleótidos más apropiado según el criterio de información Akaike. El análisis filogenético se realizó con IQ-TREE v2 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Minh <italic>et al.,</italic> 2020</xref>) que implementa el algoritmo de Máxima Verosimilitud en el portal CIPRES Science Gateway v3.3. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Miller <italic>et al.,</italic> 2011</xref>). El análisis utilizó el modelo de sustitución de nucleótidos de Hasegawa-kishino- Yano con un modelo Gamma discreto para la tasa de heterogeneidad (HKY + G). Los árboles filogenéticos fueron visualizados y editados con iTOL (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Letunic <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>).</p>
			<p>Pruebas de patogenicidad. Las pruebas de patogenicidad se llevaron a cabo de acuerdo con <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Gálvez y Palmero (2021</xref>), utilizándose dos aislamientos por cada especie. Para ello, se utilizaron bulbos libres de síntomas de la variedad “Don Fermín”. Los bulbos se deshojaron y los bulbillos se desinfestaron con hipoclorito de sodio al 1 % durante 1 min. A cada bulbillo se le realizó una herida removiendo un fragmento de 5 mm de diámetro con un sacabocado a una profundidad aproximada de 4 mm. Como inóculo, se utilizaron fragmentos de 5 mm de diámetro de medio PDA con micelio de cada especie fúngica de 7 d de crecimiento. Como testigo se utilizaron bulbillos inoculados con fragmentos de medio PDA sin patógeno. Cinco repeticiones por especie fúngica fueron establecidas. Después de la inoculación, los bulbillos se colocaron en cámara húmeda y se incubaron a 25 °C durante 14 d. De las lesiones que se desarrollaron en los bulbos inoculados se obtuvieron fragmentos, los cuales se enjuagaron con ADE, se colocaron en cajas con medio PDA, y se incubaron como se describió anteriormente. Las colonias que se desarrollaron a partir de los fragmentos de los bulbillos se purificaron y se identificaron morfológicamente. El reaislamiento de los hongos que se utilizaron para la inoculación se consideró como cumplimiento de los postulados de Koch. Esta prueba de patogenicidad se realizó por duplicado.</p>
			<p><bold>Prueba de sensibilidad a fungicidas <italic>in vitro</italic>.</bold> Un aislamiento de cada especie identificada se sometido a prueba de sensibilidad a ocho fungicidas; de los cuales, cuatro fueron sistémicos y cuatro protectantes (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Cuadro 1</xref>). Tres dosis por cada fungicida fueron evaluadas: 1X (la dosis recomendada por el fabricante), 0.5X y 1.5X. Para ello, a partir de la dosis recomendada de producto formulado, se determinó la cantidad de gramos de ingrediente activo (g.i.a. L<sup>-1</sup>) correspondiente, tomando en cuenta la concentración en el</p>
			<p>producto comercial. Las sustancias químicas se agregaron al medio PDA antes de vaciar en las cajas Petri (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Erhonyota <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). Los fungicidas y sus respectivas concentraciones se muestran en el <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Cuadro 1</xref>. Se evaluó el efecto de los fungicidas sobre el crecimiento micelial (CRM) y sobre la germinación de conidios (GEC).</p>
			<p>Cultivos de los hongos de 7 d de crecimiento en medio PDA se utilizaron para evaluar el efecto de los fungicidas sobre el CRM y la GEC (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Cuadro 1</xref>). Para el CRM, bocados de 5 mm de diámetro fueron extraídos y depositados individualmente en el centro de cajas Petri con medio PDA con las concentraciones de fungicidas respectivas. Estas cajas con inóculos se incubaron a 25 ± 0.5 °C y el CRM se registró cada 24 horas hasta que el testigo (medio sin fungicida) llenó la caja. Para evaluar la GEC, se preparó una suspensión de 5x10<sup>6</sup> conidios mL<sup>-1</sup>, de la cual, 30 μL se depositaron sobre medio de cultivo PDA con los mismos tratamientos utilizados para evaluar el CRM, con cinco repeticiones (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Cuadro 1</xref>). A la suspensión de esporas inoculada se les colocó un cubreobjeto estéril y las cajas se incubaron a 25 ± 0.5 °C. Se realizaron lecturas de 100 conidios por unidad experimental cada 2 h hasta que el testigo de cada especie fúngica alcanzó el 90 % de germinación. Los conidios se consideraron germinados cuando el tubo germinativo obtuvo la longitud de la mitad de la espora. Con los datos obtenidos se calculó el porcentaje de inhibición del CRM y la GEC. El porcentaje de inhibición del CRM se obtuvo mediante la fórmula ICRM = [(CRMtest - CRMtrat) / CRMtest] x 100, donde: ICRM = inhibición del crecimiento micelial expresado en porcentaje, CRMtest = crecimiento micelial en el tratamiento testigo, CRMtrat = crecimiento micelial en el tratamiento con fungicida. De igual manera, el porcentaje de inhibición de la GEC se obtuvo con la formula IGEC = [(GECtest - GECtrat) / GECtest] x 100, donde: IGEC = inhibición de la germinación de conidios expresada en porcentaje, GECtest = germinación en el tratamiento testigo, GECtrat = germinación de conidios en el tratamiento con fungicida.</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t1">
					<label>Cuadro 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Fungicidas sistémicos y protectantes evaluados sobre <italic>Alternaria embellisia</italic> y <italic>Penicillium allii.</italic></title>
					</caption>
					<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th rowspan="2" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Ingrediente Activo</th>
								<th rowspan="2" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Fabricante</th>
								<th rowspan="2" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Grupo químico</th>
								<th rowspan="2" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Modo de acción</th>
								<th colspan="3" style="border-bottom:0px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Dosis (g. i. a. L-1)z</th>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">0.5x</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">1xy</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">1.5x</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td>Propiconazol</td>
								<td>Syngenta</td>
								<td>Triazol</td>
								<td>Sistémico</td>
								<td>0.625</td>
								<td>1.25</td>
								<td>1.875</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Tiabendazol</td>
								<td>Syngenta</td>
								<td>Benzimidazol</td>
								<td>Sistémico</td>
								<td>0.45</td>
								<td>0.9</td>
								<td>1.35</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Carbendazim</td>
								<td>AgroLucava</td>
								<td>Benzimidazol</td>
								<td>Sistémico</td>
								<td>0.5</td>
								<td>1</td>
								<td>1.5</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Azoxystrobin + Ciproconazol</td>
								<td>Syngenta</td>
								<td>Metoxiacrilatos + Triazol</td>
								<td>Sistémico</td>
								<td>0.15/0.05</td>
								<td>0.3/0.11</td>
								<td>0.45/0.16</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Oxicloruro de cobre</td>
								<td>Cuprosa</td>
								<td>Cúprico</td>
								<td>Protectante</td>
								<td>6.525</td>
								<td>13.05</td>
								<td>19.575</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Captan</td>
								<td>Mexfer</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>Protectante</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td> </td>
								<td> </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td> </td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>Ftalamidas</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>3.125</td>
								<td>6.25</td>
								<td>9.375</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Hidróxido de cobre</td>
								<td>Cuprosa</td>
								<td>Cúprico</td>
								<td>Protectante</td>
								<td>3.75</td>
								<td>7.5</td>
								<td>11.25</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Aceite de árbol de té</td>
								<td>Syngenta</td>
								<td>Monoterpenos</td>
								<td>Protectante</td>
								<td>0.555</td>
								<td>1.11</td>
								<td>1.665</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN1">
							<label><sup>
 <italic>y</italic>
</sup></label>
							<p>Dosis recomendada por el fabricante.</p>
						</fn>
						<fn id="TFN2">
							<p>zg.i.a.= gramos de ingrediente activo</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>Análisis estadísticos. Los datos de efectividad sobre el CRM y la GEC se analizaron, para cada especie fúngica, bajo un diseño experimental completamente al azar. Previo al análisis, los datos se transformaron al arcoseno de la raíz cuadrada de la proporción. Posteriormente se realizó la comparación de tratamientos mediante análisis de varianza</p>
			<p>con un nivel de significancia de <italic>p</italic> ≤ 0.05 y una prueba Post-hoc a través del análisis de Tukey utilizando el programa SAS® (versión 9.0; SAS Institute, Cary, N.C.).</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="results|discussion">
			<title>Resultados y Discusión</title>
			<p>Síntomas observados. Los bulbos presentaron catáfilas con manchas de colores grises y negras (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref> A), presencia de micelio color negro entre catáfilas y de moho en la superficie. Algunos bulbillos presentaron necrosis superficial de apariencia seca, con esporulación de color negra, sin progresión hacia el interior del bulbillo. Estos síntomas se asociaron a <italic>Alternaria</italic> sp. Otros bulbillos presentaron lesiones necróticas con borde color amarillento, de aspecto hundido y acuoso, con progresión hacia el interior del bulbillo. Además, presentaron crecimiento de micelio y esporulación color verde. Estos síntomas se asociaron a <italic>Penicillium</italic> sp. (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref> B).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f1">
					<label>Figura 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>A. Bulbos de <italic>Allium sativum</italic> variedad “Don Fermín” con deterioro en postcosecha. B. Bulbillos de</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-02-RMEXFIT24062-gf1.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p><italic>A. sativum</italic> con cancros y moho verde.</p>
			<p>Caracterización morfológica. A partir de bulbos de <italic>A. sativum</italic> con deterioro en postcosecha (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>) se obtuvieron cuatro aislamientos: AL1D2B, AL1D3B, AL1D4B y AL1D5B. Los aislamientos AL1D2B y AL1D3B, obtenidos a partir de cancros superficiales, desarrollaron colonias difusas de color marrón-negruzco, con micelio superficial e inmerso (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>A), conidióforos simples o ramificados, rectos o flexibles,</p>
			<p>con una longitud de hasta 83 μm de largo y de 5 a 10 μm de ancho (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>B-E). Conidios de color marrón, solitarios, lisos, oblongos, de 4 a 6 septos transversales (comúnmente 4) de 19.0 - 34.6 μm de largo y de 9 - 12.9 μm de ancho (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>F). Clamidosporas terminales e intercalares de pared gruesa, de color marrón oscuro desarrolladas a partir de células hifales (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>G-H). Estas características morfológicas concuerdan con lo descrito por Woudenberg <italic>et al</italic>. (2013) y <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Delgado-Ortiz <italic>et al.</italic> (2019</xref>) para la especie <italic>Alternaria embellisia</italic> (syn. <italic>Embellisia allii</italic>).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f2">
					<label>Figura 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title><italic>Alternaria embellisia</italic> (syn. <italic>Embellisia allii</italic>), aislamientos AL1D2B y AL1D3B<italic>.</italic> 
 <bold>A.</bold> Colonia de 7 d creciendo en medio PDA a 25 °C. <bold>B, C.</bold> Conidióforo simple y conidio solitario. <bold>D, E.</bold> Conidióforo ramificado. <bold>F.</bold> Conidios septados. <bold>G, H.</bold> Clamidosporas.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-02-RMEXFIT24062-gf2.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>Los aislamientos AL1D4B y AL1D5B, obtenidos de lesiones con crecimiento micelial y esporulación color verde, presentaron colonias radialmente surcadas, discretamente densas, con márgenes sumergidos y micelio blanco, con conidiogénesis moderada y color verde opaco (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>A). Los conidióforos con pared rugosa emergían de hifas superficiales en fascículos con célula basal corta y robusto de 96 - 155 x 3.4 - 5.1 μm (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>B-D). Penicilios terminales con ramas subterminales y ramas recurrentes de pared rugosa. Frecuentemente una rama por penicilio, agrupados ocasionalmente en clusters de 2 a 3. Fialides ampulliformes, en racimos frecuentemente de 2 a 4, de 6.4 - 11 x 2.7 - 3.3 μm. Conidios esféricos a subesféricos, de pared lisa y en cadenas, de 3.6 - 4.9 μm de diámetro en promedio (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>E). Estas características están en concordancia con <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Vincent y Pitt (1989</xref>) y <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Valdez <italic>et al</italic>. (2006</xref>) para la especie <italic>Penicillium allii.</italic></p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f3">
					<label>Figura 3</label>
					<caption>
						<title><italic>Penicillium allii,</italic> aislamientos AL1D4B y AL1D5B<italic>.</italic> 
 <bold>A.</bold> Colonia de 7 d creciendo en medio PDA a 25°C. <bold>B.</bold> Conidióforo mostrando estípite y métula con pared rugosa<bold>. C.</bold> Conidióforo. <bold>D.</bold> Conidióforo con fiálides y conidiación formando cadenas. <bold>E.</bold> Conidios. <bold>F, G.</bold> Clamidosporas terminales e intercalares.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-02-RMEXFIT24062-gf3.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>Caracterización molecular. La secuencia de la región ITS del aislamiento AL1D2B (585 pb, número de acceso Genbank: PP869831), fue 99.8 % idéntica con la secuencia reportada para <italic>A. embellisia</italic> (MH899088) en México (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Delgado-Ortiz <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Por su parte, la secuencia de la región β-tubulina del aislamiento AL1D4B (433 pb, número de acceso Genbank: PP920512), fue 99.3 % idéntica con la secuencia reportada para <italic>P. allii</italic> (MW244893) en España (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Gálvez y Palmero 2021</xref>). El árbol filogenético realizado para</p>
			<p><italic>A. embellisia</italic> (AL1D2B) mostró soportes de bootstrap del 100 %, que separan a nuestro aislamiento de otras especies de <italic>Alternaria</italic> y lo agrupa con <italic>A. embellisia</italic> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 4</xref>A). De igual manera, la filogenia realizada para <italic>P. allii</italic> (AL1D4B) mostró nodos de bootstrap del 100 %, que ubican a este aislamiento con <italic>P. allii</italic> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 4</xref>B).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f4">
					<label>Figura 4</label>
					<caption>
						<title>A. Árbol filogenético de máxima verosimilitud construido a partir de secuencias parciales del espaciador interno transcrito 1 y 2 que intervienen en la subunidad 5.8S rDNA para el aislamiento de <italic>Alternaria embellisia</italic> (número de acceso Genbank: PP869831), y B. Árbol filogenético de máxima verosimilitud construido a partir de secuencias parciales del gen de β tubulina para el aislamiento de <italic>Penicillium allii</italic> (número de acceso Genbank: PP920512); obtenidos de muestras de bulbos de ajo con pudrición en postcosecha, en Aramberri, Nuevo León. Los datos de otras cepas y especies de <italic>Alternaria</italic> se obtuvieron de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Pryor y Bigelow (2003</xref>). Los datos de otras cepas y especies de <italic>Penicillium</italic> se obtuvieron de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Samson <italic>et al.</italic> (2004</xref>). Los números al lado de los nodos indican los valores del análisis de robustez en porcentaje.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-02-RMEXFIT24062-gf4.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>Pruebas de patogenicidad. La prueba realizada sobre bulbillos de <italic>A. sativum</italic> permitió confirmar la patogenicidad de <italic>P. allii,</italic> cepas AL1D4B y AL1D5B, evaluadas a los 14 d</p>
			<p>después de la inoculación (ddi). Todos los bulbillos inoculados con <italic>P. allii</italic> presentaron lesiones necróticas hundidas, con crecimiento micelial, esporulación de color verde, y progreso interno de la pudrición (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 4</xref>A). Resultados similares fueron reportados por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Gálvez y Palmero (2021</xref>) quienes, al inocular bulbillos de ajo con <italic>P. allii,</italic> observaron lesiones hundidas de aspecto acuoso con crecimiento micelial verde y progresión interna de la lesión. Por su parte, en todos los bulbillos inoculados con <italic>A. embellisia</italic> (AL1D2B y AL1D3B), a los 14 ddi, se observó crecimiento micelial y esporulación de color marrón oscuro limitado a la zona de la herida causada para la inoculación (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 4</xref>B). Lo anterior concuerda con lo reportado por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Delgado-Ortiz <italic>et al</italic>. (2019</xref>) para <italic>A. embellisia</italic>, donde bulbos de <italic>A. sativum</italic> presentaron crecimiento superficial, micelio color marrón y esporulación de color marrón oscuro. Los bulbillos que se usaron como testigo no presentaron infección por los hongos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 4</xref>C). Los aislamientos inoculados que se reaislaron a partir de tejido infectado, de todos los bulbillos utilizados, tuvieron las mismas características que los aislados originales.</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f5">
					<label>Figura 5</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Prueba de patogenicidad de (A) <italic>Penicillium allii</italic> (AL1D4B) y (B) <italic>Alternaria embellisia</italic> (AL1D2B) sobre bulbillos de <italic>Allium sativum,</italic>14 d después de la inoculación. (C) Testigo. Cada bulbillo en una misma columna representa las repeticiones del aislamiento.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-02-RMEXFIT24062-gf5.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Vincent y Pitt (1989</xref>) reportaron y describieron por primera vez a <italic>P. allii</italic> como el agente causal de la pudrición de los bulbillos de <italic>A. sativum</italic> en Egipto. Posteriormente, <italic>P.</italic></p>
			<p><italic>allii</italic> fue reportado como la causa de la pudrición verde del ajo en Estados Unidos, China, Argentina, Egipto y España (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Dugan, 2007</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Valdez <italic>et al</italic>., 2006</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Moharam <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Gálvez y Palmero, 2021</xref>). De acuerdo con Gálvez y Palmero (2021) este hongo es uno de los patógenos fúngicos más virulento que afecta a las plantas de ajo en el campo y durante el almacenamiento en España. De acuerdo con estos autores, <italic>P. allii</italic> es más virulento en bulbillos heridos y que este patógeno requiere la presencia de heridas previas para desarrollarse. En México, la pudrición verde del ajo, en bulbos almacenados, se atribuye a las especies <italic>P. hirsutum</italic> y <italic>P. citrinum</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Hernández-Anguiano <italic>et al</italic>., 2006</xref>). A nuestro conocimiento, este es el primer reporte de <italic>P. allii</italic> causando pudrición verde sobre bulbos de <italic>A. sativum</italic>, bajo condiciones de almacén, en México.</p>
			<p>Por otro lado, se ha reportado a <italic>A. embellisia</italic> como el agente causal de cancro en bulbos almacenados y manchas en las catáfilas de bulbo y bulbillos de <italic>A. sativum</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Lee y Magan, 2010</xref>). Esta especie fue reportada por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Dugan <italic>et al</italic>. (2007</xref>) como agente causante de pérdidas importantes de bulbos de <italic>A. sativum</italic> durante la regeneración y el almacenamiento de germoplasma para el Sistema Nacional de Germoplasma Vegetal en Pullman, Washington, USA. Este patógeno también fue reportado como el agente causal del cancro del bulbo de ajo en Coahuila, México (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Delgado-Ortiz <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). De acuerdo con Lee <italic>et al</italic>. (2002), el cancro de los bulbos causado por <italic>A. embellisia</italic> se considera una enfermedad menor. No obstante, debido al color de los síntomas, esta enfermedad puede reducir el valor comercial de <italic>A. sativum</italic>. Además, la presencia de este hongo en los bulbos puede actuar como fuente del inóculo primario y facilitan su dispersión a larga distancia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Gálvez y Palmero, 2021</xref>).</p>
			<p><bold>Pruebas de sensibilidad a fungicidas <italic>in vitro</italic>.</bold> Los hongos <italic>A. embellisia</italic> y <italic>P. allii</italic> mostraron sensibilidad <italic>in vitro</italic> a todos los fungicidas evaluados, tanto sistémicos como protectantes (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Cuadro 2</xref>). Hubo diferencias altamente significativas (<italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.0001) en la efectividad de los fungicidas sobre el CRM y la GEC de <italic>A. embellisia</italic>. En este caso, el fungicida sistémico propiconazol y el fungicida protectante hidróxido de cobre inhibieron el 100 % del CRM y la GEC en las tres dosis evaluadas (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Cuadro 2</xref>). Por su parte, la mezcla azoxystrobin + ciproconazol inhibió el 100 % del CRM en las tres dosis, pero solo inhibió en el rango de 40 al 85.9 % la GEC, respecto a las tres dosis evaluadas. Así también, el fungicida captan inhibió el 100 % de la GEC en las tres dosis, pero sólo inhibió del 85 al 87 % el CRM en las tres dosis evaluadas. Los fungicidas con menor efectividad sobre el CRM de <italic>A. embellisia</italic> fueron el carbendazim con una efectividad máxima del 47 % en la dosis más alta y el tiabendazol con el 76 % de efectividad en la dosis más alta evaluada. Los fungicidas con menor efectividad sobre la GEC fueron el tiabendazol con el 73 % de efectividad y el aceite de árbol de té con el 38.7 % de efectividad, en la dosis máxima evaluada (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Cuadro 2</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t2">
					<label>Cuadro 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Efectividad de fungicidas sistémicos y protectantes sobre el crecimiento micelial y la germinación de esporas de <italic>Alternaria embellisia</italic> y <italic>Penicillium allii in vitro.</italic></title>
					</caption>
					<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th colspan="2" style="border-bottom:0px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;"/>
								<th colspan="7" style="border-bottom:0px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Alternaria embellisia</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:0px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;"/>
								<th colspan="7" style="border-bottom:0px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Penicillium allii</th>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Fungicida</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Dosis (g.i.a. L-1) y</th>
								<th colspan="3" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Inhibición del crecimiento micelial (%)z</th>
								<th colspan="4" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Inhibición de la germinación (%)z</th>
								<th colspan="4" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Inhibición del crecimiento micelial (%)z</th>
								<th colspan="4" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Inhibición de la germinación (%)z</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td>Testigo</td>
								<td>0</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>0</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td> </td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>0</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td> </td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>0</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td> </td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>0</td>
								<td> </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td> </td>
								<td>0.625</td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Propiconazol</td>
								<td>1.25</td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td> </td>
								<td>1.875</td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td> </td>
								<td>0.45</td>
								<td>71.7</td>
								<td>±0.5</td>
								<td>C</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>35.1</td>
								<td>±7.4</td>
								<td>F</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>38.9</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">±2.2</td>
								<td>GH</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>50.0</td>
								<td>±4.1</td>
								<td>F</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right">Tiabendazol</td>
								<td>0.9</td>
								<td>75.1</td>
								<td>±1.4</td>
								<td>C</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>71.5</td>
								<td>±4.1</td>
								<td>E</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>51.5</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">±2.7</td>
								<td>F</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>48.0</td>
								<td>±2.4</td>
								<td>F</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td> </td>
								<td>1.35</td>
								<td>76.6</td>
								<td>±1.2</td>
								<td>C</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>73.1</td>
								<td>±3.6</td>
								<td>E</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>62.1</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">±1.2</td>
								<td>E</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>48.5</td>
								<td>±4.3</td>
								<td>F</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td> </td>
								<td>0.5</td>
								<td>34.6</td>
								<td>±8.1</td>
								<td>E</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>93.3</td>
								<td>±0.6</td>
								<td>CB</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>28.4</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">±3.5</td>
								<td>I</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>92.5</td>
								<td>±2.4</td>
								<td>CD</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td style="text-align:right">Carbendazim</td>
								<td>1.0</td>
								<td>36.5</td>
								<td>±4.3</td>
								<td>E</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>97.4</td>
								<td>±1.0</td>
								<td>B</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>33.1</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">±4.1</td>
								<td>HI</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>93.7</td>
								<td>±3.1</td>
								<td>CB</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td> </td>
								<td>1.5</td>
								<td>47.5</td>
								<td>±5.0</td>
								<td>D</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>33.4</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">±6.4</td>
								<td>IH</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td> </td>
								<td>0.15/0.05</td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>41.0</td>
								<td>±8.2</td>
								<td>F</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>83.4</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">±3.0</td>
								<td>D</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>36.2</td>
								<td>±4.5</td>
								<td>G</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td rowspan="2">Azoxystrobin + Ciproconazol</td>
								<td>0.3/0.11</td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>88.2</td>
								<td>±1.7</td>
								<td>DC</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>85.6</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">±1.6</td>
								<td>D</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>0.45/0.16</td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>85.9</td>
								<td>±3.6</td>
								<td>D</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>89.7</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">±0.6</td>
								<td>B</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td> </td>
								<td>6.525</td>
								<td>71.9</td>
								<td>±3.5</td>
								<td>C</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>66.7</td>
								<td>±6.7</td>
								<td>E</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>91.2</td>
								<td>±0.5</td>
								<td>CD</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Oxicloruro de cobre</td>
								<td>13.05</td>
								<td>84.9</td>
								<td>±1.4</td>
								<td>B</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>86.9</td>
								<td>±2.3</td>
								<td>CD</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td> </td>
								<td>19.575</td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>87.3</td>
								<td>±1.4</td>
								<td>DC</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td> </td>
								<td>3.125</td>
								<td>87.6</td>
								<td>±2.3</td>
								<td>B</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>92.9</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">±1.0</td>
								<td>B</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Captan</td>
								<td>6.25</td>
								<td>85.6</td>
								<td>±1.9</td>
								<td>B</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>90.3</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">±2.5</td>
								<td>B</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td> </td>
								<td>9.375</td>
								<td>85.9</td>
								<td>±1.3</td>
								<td>B</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td> </td>
								<td>3.75</td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Hidróxido de cobre</td>
								<td>7.5</td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td> </td>
								<td>1.665</td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td> </td>
								<td>0.55</td>
								<td>45.3</td>
								<td>±3.4</td>
								<td>D</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>7.9</td>
								<td>±0.5</td>
								<td>G</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>15.4</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">±1.9</td>
								<td>J</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>78.5</td>
								<td>±1.9</td>
								<td>E</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Aceite de árbol de té</td>
								<td>1.11</td>
								<td>71.8</td>
								<td>±2.6</td>
								<td>C</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>20.7</td>
								<td>±8.2</td>
								<td>G</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>32.2</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">±4.0</td>
								<td>I</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>88.7</td>
								<td>±1.5</td>
								<td>D</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td> </td>
								<td>1.665</td>
								<td>100</td>
								<td>±0</td>
								<td>A</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>38.7</td>
								<td>±8.3</td>
								<td>F</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>44.9</td>
								<td style="text-align:right">±0.5</td>
								<td>FG</td>
								<td> </td>
								<td>96.0</td>
								<td>±1.4</td>
								<td>B</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN3">
							<label><sup>
 <italic>y</italic>
</sup></label>
							<p>g.i.a.= gramos de ingrediente activo</p>
						</fn>
						<fn id="TFN4">
							<p>zMedias con letras iguales dentro de la misma columna, no son estadísticamente diferentes (Tukey, P &lt; 0.05).</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>También, hubo diferencias altamente significativas (<italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.0001) en la efectividad de los fungicidas sobre el CRM y la GEC de <italic>P. allii</italic>. El fungicida sistémico propiconazol y el fungicida protectante hidróxido de cobre inhibieron el 100 % del CRM y la GEC en las tres dosis evaluadas (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Cuadro 2</xref>). Así también, el fungicida protectante oxicloruro de cobre inhibió el 100 % del CRM y la GEC a partir de la dosis comercial (13.05 g.i.a. L<sup>-1</sup>). Por su parte, el captan inhibió el 100 % de la GEC en todas las dosis evaluadas, pero sólo inhibió el 100 % del CRM en la mayor dosis evaluada (9.3 g.i.a. L<sup>-1</sup>). Así mismo, el</p>
			<p>carbendazima inhibió el 100 % de la GEC sólo a 1.5 g.i.a. L<sup>-1</sup>. La mezcla de azoxystrobim</p>
			<p>+ ciproconazol inhibió el 100 % de la GEC a partir de la dosis 0.3/0.11 g.i.a. L<sup>-1</sup>, y su efectividad sobre el CRM fue del 83 al 89 %. Los fungicidas con menor efectividad sobre el CRM de <bold>
 <italic>P. allii.</italic> 
</bold> fueron el tiabendazol con una efectividad máxima del 62 % en la dosis más alta, el carbendazim con una efectividad máxima del 33 % en la dosis más alta y el aceite del árbol de té con una efectividad máxima del 44.9 % en la dosis más alta. El fungicida con menor efectividad sobre la GEC fue el tiabendazol el cual mostró una efectividad del 50 % en la dosis máxima evaluada; por su parte el aceite de árbol de té mostró una inhibición de la GEC del 78 en la dosis mínima y 96 % en la dosis máxima evaluada.</p>
			<p>De acuerdo con <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Dugan <italic>et al</italic>. (2007</xref>), el uso de fungicidas puede disminuir la infección de bulbos y bulbillos en postcosecha. Sin embargo, se debe tener en cuenta los períodos de seguridad de los diferentes ingredientes activos y el periodo de postcosecha. En el presente estudio, el propiconazol y el hidróxido de cobre mostraron efectividad <italic>in vitro</italic> sobre la CRM y la GDC de <italic>A. embellisia</italic> en todas las dosis evaluadas. El propiconazol es un fungicida sistémico que actúa inhibiendo el proceso de metilación en la biosíntesis del ergosterol, induciendo la ruptura de la membrana celular del hongo, lo que detiene su crecimiento (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Marzi <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>). Debido a su naturaleza sistémica, este fungicida ofrece protección tanto preventiva como curativa con una persistencia que puede variar según la dosis utilizada y las condiciones del ambiente; además, puede translocarse al interior del tejido, por lo cual es necesario considerar los periodos de carencia para garantizar la inocuidad alimentaria. De acuerdo con <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Gopinath <italic>et al.</italic> (2006</xref>), se ha demostrado que el propiconazol puede ser metabolizado en las plantas con la degradación gradual del propiconazol en los tejidos vegetales. En la actualidad, no hay información sobre el uso de propiconazol sobre <italic>A. embellisia</italic> en el cultivo del ajo. Sin embargo, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Vijaykumar <italic>et al</italic>. (2021</xref>) reportaron 100 % de efectividad del tebuconazol, un fungicida del mismo grupo químico que el propiconazol, sobre el desarrollo micelial de <italic>A. porri</italic>, patógeno de <italic>A. sativum</italic> en la India. Por su parte, el hidróxido de cobre es un fungicida protectante que ofrece protección preventiva, es de acción multisitio, de baja toxicidad y de bajo riesgo de generación de resistencia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Gaviria-Hernández <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>). Este fungicida actúa principalmente durante la etapa de germinación de las esporas. A nivel celular, este compuesto reacciona con los grupos sulfhidrilos, hidróxidos, aminos y carboxílicos, inactivándolos y perturbando así la cadena respiratoria (Gaviria-Hernández <italic>et al</italic>., 2013). Según nuestra revisión bibliográfica, no hay información sobre el uso del hidróxido de cobre sobre <italic>A. embellisia</italic>. Otros fungicidas que han resultado efectivos para controlar <italic>A. embellisia</italic> en bulbos de <italic>A. sativum</italic> almacenados en bancos de germoplasma son el fludioxonil (grupo químico: fenilpirroles) y el tiofanato de metilo (grupo químico: carbamatos) (Dugan <italic>et al</italic>. 2007).</p>
			<p>El propiconazol y el hidróxido de cobre también mostraron 100 % de efectividad <italic>in vitro</italic> sobre la CRM y la GDC de <italic>P. allii</italic> en todas las dosis evaluadas. Similarmente, no hay información sobre el uso de propiconazol e hidróxido de cobre sobre <italic>P. allii</italic> en el cultivo del ajo. Sin embargo, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">You <italic>et al</italic>. (2007</xref>) reportaron 100 % de efectividad del tebuconazol sobre <italic>P. hirsutum,</italic> agente causal del moho azul de <italic>A. sativun</italic> en Corea. Por otra parte, los fungicidas oxicloruro de cobre y el captan también mostraron efectividad sobre <italic>P. allii</italic> al inhibir al 100 % tanto del CRM como la GDC a una dosis de 13.05 g.i.a. L<sup>-1</sup> y 9.3 g.i.a. L<sup>-1</sup>
 <italic>,</italic> respectivamente<italic>.</italic> El oxicloruro de cobre, al igual que el hidróxido de</p>
			<p>cobre, es un fungicida protectante que actúa liberando iones de cobre, de acción multisitio que ofrece protección preventiva (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Ackermann <italic>et al</italic>., 2000</xref>). Por su acción multisitio, este compuesto también tiene baja probabilidad de que se desarrolle resistencia por parte de los hongos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Fani <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). Al igual que otros fungicidas cúpricos, el oxicloruro de cobre puede permanecer en la superficie del tejido tratado; por lo que es esencial respetar las recomendaciones de uso y los intervalos de seguridad para minimizar la acumulación de residuos de cobre en los productos cosechados. Por su parte, el captan es un fungicida de acción multisitio, de amplio espectro que reacciona con las enzimas sulfhidrílicas dando lugar a la producción de tiofosgeno, sustancia tóxica para las células fúngicas; interfiere el proceso de respiración celular en los hongos, por lo que inhibe la germinación de las esporas y dificulta el crecimiento y desarrollo micelial. Este fungicida se ha utilizado por más de 50 años y no existen reportes de toxicidad sistémica (Ackermann <italic>et al</italic>., 2000). Hasta donde sabemos, no hay información sobre el uso del oxicloruro de cobre y del captan sobre <italic>P. allii.</italic></p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusiones</title>
			<p>En esta investigación se identificaron a los hongos <italic>A. embellisia</italic> y <italic>P. allii</italic> asociados al deterioro postcosecha de <italic>A. sativum,</italic> en Aramberri, Nuevo León, México. Las pruebas de patogenicidad demostraron que <italic>P. allii</italic> es causante de pudrición verde del ajo, donde</p>
			<p><italic>P. allii</italic> mostró capacidad para desarrollar infecciones internas a partir de heridas; este es el primer reporte de <italic>P. allii</italic> como agente causal de pudrición verde del ajo en México. <italic>Alternaria embellisia</italic> sólo mostró crecimiento sobre las heridas, contribuyendo también al deterioro de los bulbos de <italic>A. sativum</italic>. El fungicida sistémico propiconazol y el fungicida protectante hidróxido de cobre fueron los más efectivos, inhibiendo el 100% tanto el crecimiento micelial como la germinación de conidios de <italic>P. allii</italic> y <italic>A. embellisia</italic> en condiciones <italic>in vitro</italic>, en todas las dosis evaluadas. Además, el oxicloruro de cobre y el captan también mostraron altos niveles de eficacia sobre <italic>P. allii</italic> y <italic>A. embellisia.</italic> El conocimiento generado en este estudio servirá de base para elegir estrategias de control y contribuirá significativamente a reducir las pérdidas económicas en la producción de ajo en esta región. Es necesario hacer evaluaciones <italic>in vivo</italic>, aplicando los fungicidas en precosecha y postcosecha.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Conflicto de interés</title>
			<p>Los autores declaramos explícitamente que no existe conflicto de interés en relación con esta investigación.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
		<ref-list>
			<title>Referencias</title>
			<ref id="B1">
				<mixed-citation>Ackermann P, Margot P and Müller F. 2000. Fungicides, Agricultural. pp. 1-68. <italic>In</italic>: Müller F, Ackermann P, and Margot P. (eds.). Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH. New Jersey, USA. 9456p. https://doi.org/10.1002/14356007.a12_085</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Ackermann</surname>
							<given-names>P</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Margot</surname>
							<given-names>P</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Müller</surname>
							<given-names>F.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2000</year>
					<chapter-title>Fungicides, Agricultural</chapter-title>
					<fpage>1</fpage>
					<lpage>68</lpage>
					<person-group person-group-type="editor">
						<name>
							<surname>Müller</surname>
							<given-names>F</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ackermann</surname>
							<given-names>P</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Margot</surname>
							<given-names>P.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry</source>
					<publisher-name>Wiley-VCH. New Jersey</publisher-name>
					<publisher-loc>USA</publisher-loc>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1002/14356007.a12_085</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B2">
				<mixed-citation>Ansary J, Forbes HTY, Gil E, Cianciosi D, Zhang J, Elexpuru ZM, Simal GJ, Giampieri F and Battino M. 2020. Potential health benefit of garlic based on human intervention studies: A brief overview. Antioxidants 9: 619. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox9070619</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Ansary</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Forbes</surname>
							<given-names>HTY</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Gil</surname>
							<given-names>E</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Cianciosi</surname>
							<given-names>D</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Zhang</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Elexpuru</surname>
							<given-names>ZM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Simal</surname>
							<given-names>GJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Giampieri</surname>
							<given-names>F</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Battino</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2020</year>
					<article-title>Potential health benefit of garlic based on human intervention studies: A brief overview</article-title>
					<source>Antioxidants</source>
					<volume>9</volume>
					<issue>619</issue>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">/10.3390/antiox9070619</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B3">
				<mixed-citation>Burba JL. 2003. Producción de ajo. Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria. Mendoza, Argentina. 43p. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.latranqueraweb.com.ar/web/archivos/menu/INTA_Produccion_de_ajo._.pdf">http://www.latranqueraweb.com.ar/web/archivos/menu/INTA_Produccion_de_ajo._.pdf</ext-link>
				</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Burba</surname>
							<given-names>JL.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2003</year>
					<source>Producción de ajo. Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria. Mendoza, Argentina</source>
					<fpage>43</fpage>
					<lpage>43</lpage>
					<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.latranqueraweb.com.ar/web/archivos/menu/INTA_Produccion_de_ajo._.pdf">http://www.latranqueraweb.com.ar/web/archivos/menu/INTA_Produccion_de_ajo._.pdf</ext-link>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B4">
				<mixed-citation>Chrétien PL, Laurent S, Bornard S, Troulet C, El Maâtaoui M and Leyronas C. 2020. Unraveling the infection process of garlic by <italic>Fusarium proliferatum</italic>, the causal agent of root rot. Phytopathologia Mediterranea 59: 285-293. https://doi.org/10.14601/Phyto-11103</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Chrétien</surname>
							<given-names>PL</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Laurent</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bornard</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Troulet</surname>
							<given-names>C</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>El Maâtaoui</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Leyronas</surname>
							<given-names>C.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2020</year>
					<article-title>Unraveling the infection process of garlic by Fusarium proliferatum, the causal agent of root rot</article-title>
					<source>Phytopathologia Mediterranea</source>
					<volume>59</volume>
					<fpage>285</fpage>
					<lpage>293</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14601/Phyto-11103</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B5">
				<mixed-citation>Darriba D, Taboada GL, Doallo R, Posada D. 2012. jModelTest 2: more models, new heuristics and high-performance computing. Nature methods 9: 772. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.2109.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Darriba</surname>
							<given-names>D</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Taboada</surname>
							<given-names>GL</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Doallo</surname>
							<given-names>R</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Posada</surname>
							<given-names>D.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2012</year>
					<article-title>jModelTest 2: more models, new heuristics and high-performance computing</article-title>
					<source>Nature methods</source>
					<volume>9</volume>
					<issue>772</issue>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.2109.</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B6">
				<mixed-citation>Delgado-Ortiz JC, Cerna-Chavez E, Ochoa-Fuentes YM and Beltrán-Beache M. 2019. First report of <italic>Alternaria embellisia</italic> (Syn. <italic>Embellisia allii</italic>) causing bulb canker or skin blotch on garlic in Mexico. Plant Disease 103: 1031. https://doi.org/10.1094/pdis-07-18-1171-pdn</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Delgado-Ortiz</surname>
							<given-names>JC</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Cerna-Chavez</surname>
							<given-names>E</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ochoa-Fuentes</surname>
							<given-names>YM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Beltrán-Beache</surname>
							<given-names>M.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2019</year>
					<article-title>First report of Alternaria embellisia (Syn. Embellisia allii) causing bulb canker or skin blotch on garlic in Mexico</article-title>
					<source>Plant Disease</source>
					<volume>103</volume>
					<issue>1031</issue>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">/10.1094/pdis-07-18-1171-pdn</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B7">
				<mixed-citation>Dugan FM, Hellier BC and Lupien SL. 2007. Pathogenic fungi in garlic seed cloves from the United States and China, and efficacy of fungicides against pathogens in garlic germplasm in Washington State. Journal of Phytopatholy 155: 437- 445. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0434.2007.01255.x</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Dugan</surname>
							<given-names>FM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hellier</surname>
							<given-names>BC</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Lupien</surname>
							<given-names>SL.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2007</year>
					<article-title>Pathogenic fungi in garlic seed cloves from the United States and China, and efficacy of fungicides against pathogens in garlic germplasm in Washington State</article-title>
					<source>Journal of Phytopatholy</source>
					<volume>155</volume>
					<fpage>437</fpage>
					<lpage> 445</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1111/j.1439-0434.2007.01255.x</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B8">
				<mixed-citation>Dugan FM. 2007. Diseases and disease management in seed garlic: Problems and prospects. The Americas Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology 1: 47-51. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.globalsciencebooks.info/Online/GSBOnline/images/0706/AmJPSB_1(1)/AmJPSB_1(1)47-51o.pdf">http://www.globalsciencebooks.info/Online/GSBOnline/images/0706/AmJPSB_1(1)/AmJPSB_1(1)47-51o.pdf</ext-link>
				</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Dugan</surname>
							<given-names>FM</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2007</year>
					<article-title>Diseases and disease management in seed garlic: Problems and prospects</article-title>
					<source>The Americas Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology</source>
					<volume>1</volume>
					<fpage>47</fpage>
					<lpage>51</lpage>
					<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.globalsciencebooks.info/Online/GSBOnline/images/0706/AmJPSB_1(1)/AmJPSB_1(1)47-51o.pdf">http://www.globalsciencebooks.info/Online/GSBOnline/images/0706/AmJPSB_1(1)/AmJPSB_1(1)47-51o.pdf</ext-link>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B9">
				<mixed-citation>Edgar RC. 2004. MUSCLE: multiple sequence alignment with high accuracy and high throughput. Nucleic acids research 32: 1792-1797. https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkh340</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Edgar</surname>
							<given-names>RC</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2004</year>
					<article-title>MUSCLE: multiple sequence alignment with high accuracy and high throughput</article-title>
					<source>Nucleic acids research</source>
					<volume>32</volume>
					<fpage>1792</fpage>
					<lpage>1797</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/nar/gkh340</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B10">
				<mixed-citation>Erhonyota C, Edo GI and Onoharigho FO. 2023. Comparison of poison plate and agar well diffusion method determining the antifungal activity of protein fractions. Acta Ecologica Sinica, 43: 684-689. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.2022.08.0062023</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Erhonyota</surname>
							<given-names>C</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Edo</surname>
							<given-names>GI</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Onoharigho</surname>
							<given-names>FO</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2023</year>
					<article-title>Comparison of poison plate and agar well diffusion method determining the antifungal activity of protein fractions</article-title>
					<source>Acta Ecologica Sinica</source>
					<volume>43</volume>
					<fpage>684</fpage>
					<lpage>689</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.2022.08.0062023</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B11">
				<mixed-citation>Fani SR, Azimi H and Probst C. 2021. Efficacy of copper oxychloride base fungicides to control cucumber downy mildew in greenhouse conditions in Iran. Journal of Crop Protection 10: 523-533 <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://jcp.modares.ac.ir/article-3-47785-en.html">http://jcp.modares.ac.ir/article-3-47785-en.html</ext-link>
				</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Fani</surname>
							<given-names>SR</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Azimi</surname>
							<given-names>H</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Probst</surname>
							<given-names>C.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2021</year>
					<article-title>Efficacy of copper oxychloride base fungicides to control cucumber downy mildew in greenhouse conditions in Iran</article-title>
					<source>Journal of Crop Protection</source>
					<volume>10</volume>
					<fpage>523</fpage>
					<lpage>533</lpage>
					<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://jcp.modares.ac.ir/article-3-47785-en.html">http://jcp.modares.ac.ir/article-3-47785-en.html</ext-link>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B12">
				<mixed-citation>FAOSTAT, The statistics division of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2024. Value of agricultural production. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QV">https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QV</ext-link> (consulta, enero 2025).</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<collab>FAOSTAT, The statistics division of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations</collab>
					</person-group>
					<year>2024</year>
					<source>Value of agricultural production</source>
					<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QV">https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QV</ext-link>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B13">
				<mixed-citation>Gálvez L and Palmero D. 2021. Incidence and etiology of postharvest fungal diseases associated with bulb rot in garlic (<italic>Alllium sativum</italic>) in Spain. Foods 10: 1063. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10051063</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Gálvez</surname>
							<given-names>L</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Palmero</surname>
							<given-names>D.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2021</year>
					<article-title>Incidence and etiology of postharvest fungal diseases associated with bulb rot in garlic (Alllium sativum) in Spain</article-title>
					<source>Foods</source>
					<volume>10</volume>
					<issue>1063</issue>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10051063</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B14">
				<mixed-citation>Gaviria-Hernández V, Patiño-Hoyos LF y Saldarriaga-Cardona A. 2013. Evaluación <italic>in vitro</italic> de fungicidas comerciales para el control de <italic>Colletotrichum</italic> spp., en mora de castilla. Ciencia y Tecnología Agropecuaria, 14 67-75. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0122-87062013000100008&amp;lng=en&amp;tlng=es">http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0122-87062013000100008&amp;lng=en&amp;tlng=es</ext-link>
				</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Gaviria-Hernández</surname>
							<given-names>V</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Patiño-Hoyos</surname>
							<given-names>LF</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Saldarriaga-Cardona</surname>
							<given-names>A.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2013</year>
					<article-title>Evaluación in vitro de fungicidas comerciales para el control de Colletotrichum spp., en mora de castilla</article-title>
					<source>Ciencia y Tecnología Agropecuaria</source>
					<volume>14</volume>
					<fpage>67</fpage>
					<lpage>75</lpage>
					<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0122-87062013000100008&amp;lng=en&amp;tlng=es">http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0122-87062013000100008&amp;lng=en&amp;tlng=es</ext-link>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B15">
				<mixed-citation>Gopinath K, Radhakrishnan NV and Jayaraj J. 2006. Effect of propiconazole and difenoconazole on the control of anthracnose of chilli fruits caused by<italic>Colletotrichum capsici</italic>. Crop Protection 25: 1024-1031. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2006.02.001</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Gopinath</surname>
							<given-names>K</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Radhakrishnan</surname>
							<given-names>NV</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Jayaraj</surname>
							<given-names>J.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2006</year>
					<article-title>Effect of propiconazole and difenoconazole on the control of anthracnose of chilli fruits caused by Colletotrichum capsici</article-title>
					<source>Crop Protection</source>
					<volume>25</volume>
					<fpage>1024</fpage>
					<lpage>1031</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2006.02.001</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B16">
				<mixed-citation>Hernández-Anguiano AM, Juárez-López G, Fucikovsky Zak L, Zavaleta-Mejía E y González Hernández VA. 2006. Impacto del almacenamiento en la brotación de bulbos de ajo y especies patogénicas de <italic>Penicillium</italic> y <italic>Erwinia</italic> asociadas. Revista Fitotecnia Mexicana 29: 283-290. https://doi.org/10.35196/rfm.2006.4.283-290</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Hernández-Anguiano</surname>
							<given-names>AM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Juárez-López</surname>
							<given-names>G</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Fucikovsky Zak</surname>
							<given-names>L</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Zavaleta-Mejía</surname>
							<given-names>E</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>González Hernández</surname>
							<given-names>VA.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2006</year>
					<article-title>Impacto del almacenamiento en la brotación de bulbos de ajo y especies patogénicas de Penicillium y Erwinia asociadas</article-title>
					<source>Revista Fitotecnia Mexicana</source>
					<volume>29</volume>
					<fpage>283</fpage>
					<lpage>290</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.35196/rfm.2006.4.283-290</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B17">
				<mixed-citation>Khatoon A, Mohapatra A and Satapathy KB. 2017. Studies on fungi associated with stora garlic (<italic>Allium sativum</italic>). International Research Journal of Biological Sciences, 6: 19-24. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.isca.me/IJBS/Archive/v6/i1/4.ISCA-IRJBS-2016- 148.pdf">https://www.isca.me/IJBS/Archive/v6/i1/4.ISCA-IRJBS-2016- 148.pdf</ext-link>
				</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Khatoon</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Mohapatra</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Satapathy</surname>
							<given-names>KB.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2017</year>
					<article-title>Studies on fungi associated with stora garlic (Allium sativum)</article-title>
					<source>International Research Journal of Biological Sciences</source>
					<volume>6</volume>
					<fpage>19</fpage>
					<lpage>24</lpage>
					<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.isca.me/IJBS/Archive/v6/i1/4.ISCA-IRJBS-2016- 148.pdf">https://www.isca.me/IJBS/Archive/v6/i1/4.ISCA-IRJBS-2016- 148.pdf</ext-link>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B18">
				<mixed-citation>Kumar S, Stecher G, Li M, Knyaz C, Tamura K. 2018. MEGA X: molecular evolutionary genetics analysis across computing platforms. Molecular biology and evolution 35: 1547. https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msy096</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Kumar</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Stecher</surname>
							<given-names>G</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Li</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Knyaz</surname>
							<given-names>C</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Tamura</surname>
							<given-names>K.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2018</year>
					<article-title>MEGA X: molecular evolutionary genetics analysis across computing platforms</article-title>
					<source>Molecular biology and evolution</source>
					<volume>35</volume>
					<fpage>1547</fpage>
					<lpage>1547</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/molbev/msy096</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B19">
				<mixed-citation>Lee HB and Magan N. 2010. The influence of environmental factors on growth and interactions between <italic>Embellisia allii</italic> and <italic>Fusarium oxysporum</italic> f. sp. <italic>cepae</italic> isolated from garlic. International Journal of Food Microbiology 138: 238-242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2010.01.019</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Lee</surname>
							<given-names>HB</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Magan</surname>
							<given-names>N.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2010</year>
					<article-title>The influence of environmental factors on growth and interactions between Embellisia allii and Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cepae isolated from garlic</article-title>
					<source>International Journal of Food Microbiology</source>
					<volume>138</volume>
					<fpage>238</fpage>
					<lpage>242</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2010.01.019</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B20">
				<mixed-citation>Lee HB, Kim CJ and Yu SH. 2002. First report of bulb canker of garlic caused by <italic>Embellisia allii</italic> in Korea. Mycobiology 30: 240-243. https://doi.org/10.4489/MYCO.2002.30.4.240</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Lee</surname>
							<given-names>HB</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kim</surname>
							<given-names>CJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Yu</surname>
							<given-names>SH.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2002</year>
					<article-title>First report of bulb canker of garlic caused by Embellisia allii in Korea</article-title>
					<source>Mycobiology</source>
					<volume>30</volume>
					<fpage>240</fpage>
					<lpage>243</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.4489/MYCO.2002.30.4.240</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B21">
				<mixed-citation>Letunic I, Khedkar S and Bork P. 2021. SMART: recent updates, new developments and status in 2020. Nucleic acids research 49: 458-460. https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkaa937</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Letunic</surname>
							<given-names>I</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Khedkar</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bork</surname>
							<given-names>P.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2021</year>
					<article-title>SMART: recent updates, new developments and status in 2020</article-title>
					<source>Nucleic acids research</source>
					<volume>49</volume>
					<fpage>458</fpage>
					<lpage>460</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/nar/gkaa937</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B22">
				<mixed-citation>Marzi M, Farjam M, Kazeminejad Z, Shiroudi A, Kouhpayeh S and Zarenezhad E. 2022. A recent overview of 1,2,3-triazole- containing hybrids as novel nntifungal agents: focusing on synthesis, mechanism of action, and structure-activity relationship (SAR). Journal of Chemistry. 2022: 1-50. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/7884316</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Marzi</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Farjam</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kazeminejad</surname>
							<given-names>Z</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Shiroudi</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kouhpayeh</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Zarenezhad</surname>
							<given-names>E.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2022</year>
					<article-title>A recent overview of 1,2,3-triazole- containing hybrids as novel nntifungal agents: focusing on synthesis, mechanism of action, and structure-activity relationship (SAR)</article-title>
					<source>Journal of Chemistry</source>
					<volume>2022</volume>
					<fpage>1</fpage>
					<lpage>50</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1155/2022/7884316</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B23">
				<mixed-citation>Minh BQ, Schmidt HA, Chernomor O, Schrempf D, Woodhams MD, Von Haeseler A and Lanfear R. 2020. IQ-TREE 2: new models and efficient methods for phylogenetic inference in the genomic era. Molecular biology and evolution 37: 1530-1534. https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msaa015</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Minh</surname>
							<given-names>BQ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Schmidt</surname>
							<given-names>HA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Chernomor</surname>
							<given-names>O</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Schrempf</surname>
							<given-names>D</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Woodhams</surname>
							<given-names>MD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Von Haeseler</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Lanfear</surname>
							<given-names>R.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2020</year>
					<article-title>IQ-TREE 2: new models and efficient methods for phylogenetic inference in the genomic era</article-title>
					<source>Molecular biology and evolution</source>
					<volume>37</volume>
					<fpage>1530</fpage>
					<lpage>1534</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/molbev/msaa015</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B24">
				<mixed-citation>Moharam MHA, Farrag ESH and Mohamed MDA. 2013. Pathogenic fungi in garlic seed cloves and first report of <italic>Fusarium proliferatum</italic> causing cloves rot of stored bulbs in upper Egypt. Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection 46: 2096-2103. https://doi.org/10.1080/03235408.2013.785122</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Moharam</surname>
							<given-names>MHA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Farrag</surname>
							<given-names>ESH</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Mohamed</surname>
							<given-names>MDA</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2013</year>
					<article-title>Pathogenic fungi in garlic seed cloves and first report of Fusarium proliferatum causing cloves rot of stored bulbs in upper Egypt</article-title>
					<source>Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection</source>
					<volume>46</volume>
					<fpage>2096</fpage>
					<lpage>2103</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1080/03235408.2013.785122</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B25">
				<mixed-citation>Miller M, Pfeiffer WT and Schwartz T. 2011. The CIPRES science gateway: A community resource for phylogenetic analyses. Proceedings of the TeraGrid Conference 2011: 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1145/2016741.2016785</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Miller</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Pfeiffer</surname>
							<given-names>WT</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Schwartz</surname>
							<given-names>T.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2011</year>
					<article-title>The CIPRES science gateway: A community resource for phylogenetic analyses.</article-title>
					<source>Proceedings of the TeraGrid Conference</source>
					<volume>2011</volume>
					<fpage>1</fpage>
					<lpage>8</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1145/2016741.2016785</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B26">
				<mixed-citation>Ochoa-Fuentes YM, Cerna-Chavez E, Gallegos-Morales G, Landeros-Flores J, Delgado-Ortiz JC, Hernández-Camacho S y Olalde-Portugal V. 2012. Identificación de especies de <italic>Fusarium</italic> en semilla de ajo en Aguascalientes, México. Revista Mexicana de Micología 36: 27-32. https://doi.org/10.33885/sf.2012.3.1102</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Ochoa-Fuentes</surname>
							<given-names>YM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Cerna-Chavez</surname>
							<given-names>E</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Gallegos-Morales</surname>
							<given-names>G</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Landeros-Flores</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Delgado-Ortiz</surname>
							<given-names>JC</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hernández-Camacho</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Olalde-Portugal</surname>
							<given-names>V.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2012</year>
					<article-title>Identificación de especies de Fusarium en semilla de ajo en Aguascalientes, México</article-title>
					<source>Revista Mexicana de Micología</source>
					<volume>36</volume>
					<fpage>27</fpage>
					<lpage>32</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.33885/sf.2012.3.1102</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B27">
				<mixed-citation>Pryor BM and Bigelow DM. 2003. Molecular characterization of <italic>Embellisia</italic> and <italic>Nimbya</italic> species and their relationship to <italic>Alternaria</italic>, <italic>Ulocladium</italic> and <italic>Stemphylium</italic>. Mycologia 95: 1141-1154. doi: 10.1080/15572536.2004.11833024.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Pryor</surname>
							<given-names>BM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Bigelow</surname>
							<given-names>DM</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2003</year>
					<article-title>Molecular characterization of Embellisia and Nimbya species and their relationship to Alternaria, Ulocladium and Stemphylium</article-title>
					<source>Mycologia</source>
					<volume>95</volume>
					<fpage>1141</fpage>
					<lpage>1154</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1080/15572536.2004.11833024</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B28">
				<mixed-citation>Samson RA, Seifert KA, Kuijpers AF, Houbraken JAMP and Frisvad JC. 2004. Phylogenetic analysis of <italic>Penicillium</italic> subgenus <italic>Penicillium</italic> using partial β-tubulin sequences. Studies in Mycology 49: 175-200. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.studiesinmycology.org/sim/Sim49/Sim49Article2.pdf">https://www.studiesinmycology.org/sim/Sim49/Sim49Article2.pdf</ext-link>
				</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Samson</surname>
							<given-names>RA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Seifert</surname>
							<given-names>KA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kuijpers</surname>
							<given-names>AF</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Houbraken</surname>
							<given-names>JAMP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Frisvad</surname>
							<given-names>JC.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2004</year>
					<article-title>Phylogenetic analysis of Penicillium subgenus Penicillium using partial β-tubulin sequences</article-title>
					<source>Studies in Mycology</source>
					<volume>49</volume>
					<fpage>175</fpage>
					<lpage>200</lpage>
					<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.studiesinmycology.org/sim/Sim49/Sim49Article2.pdf">https://www.studiesinmycology.org/sim/Sim49/Sim49Article2.pdf</ext-link>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B29">
				<mixed-citation>SEDAGRO, Secretaría de Desarrollo Agropecuario del Estado de Nuevo León. 2023. Detonará NL la exportación de ajo del Sur del Estado. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.nl.gob.mx/boletines-comunicados-y-avisos/">https://www.nl.gob.mx/boletines-comunicados-y-avisos/</ext-link> (consulta, enero 2024).</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<collab>SEDAGRO, Secretaría de Desarrollo Agropecuario del Estado de Nuevo León</collab>
					</person-group>
					<year>2023</year>
					<source>Detonará NL la exportación de ajo del Sur del Estado</source>
					<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.nl.gob.mx/boletines-comunicados-y-avisos/">https://www.nl.gob.mx/boletines-comunicados-y-avisos/</ext-link>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B30">
				<mixed-citation>SENASICA, Servicio Nacional de Sanidad, Inocuidad y Calidad Agroalimentaria. 2016. Cultivos monospóricos de hongos entomopatógenos.<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.gob.mx/cms/uploads/attachment/file/172904/Ficha_CB_27_Cultivos_monosp_ricos_de_hongos_entomopat_genos.pdf">https://www.gob.mx/cms/uploads/attachment/file/172904/Ficha_CB_27_Cultivos_monosp_ricos_de_hongos_entomopat_genos.pdf</ext-link> (consulta, noviembre 2023).</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<collab>SENASICA, Servicio Nacional de Sanidad, Inocuidad y Calidad Agroalimentaria</collab>
					</person-group>
					<year>2016</year>
					<source>Cultivos monospóricos de hongos entomopatógenos</source>
					<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.gob.mx/cms/uploads/attachment/file/172904/Ficha_CB_27_Cultivos_monosp_ricos_de_hongos_entomopat_genos.pdf">https://www.gob.mx/cms/uploads/attachment/file/172904/Ficha_CB_27_Cultivos_monosp_ricos_de_hongos_entomopat_genos.pdf</ext-link>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B31">
				<mixed-citation>Sholberg PL and Conway WS. 2016. Postharvest pathology. Pp: 111-127. <italic>In</italic>: Gross KC, Wang CY and Saltveit M. (eds.). The Commercial Storage of Fruits, Vegetables, and Florist and Nursery Stocks. USDA-ARS Agriculture Handbook. United States. 790p.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Sholberg</surname>
							<given-names>PL</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Conway</surname>
							<given-names>WS</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2016</year>
					<chapter-title>Postharvest pathology</chapter-title>
					<fpage>111</fpage>
					<lpage>127</lpage>
					<person-group person-group-type="editor">
						<name>
							<surname>Gross</surname>
							<given-names>KC</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Wang</surname>
							<given-names>CY</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Saltveit</surname>
							<given-names>M.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>The Commercial Storage of Fruits, Vegetables, and Florist and Nursery Stocks. USDA-ARS Agriculture Handbook</source>
					<publisher-loc>United States</publisher-loc>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B32">
				<mixed-citation>SIAP, Servicio de Información Agroalimentaria y Pesquera. 2023. Producción Agricola. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.gob.mx/siap/acciones-y- programas/produccion-agricola-33119">https://www.gob.mx/siap/acciones-y- programas/produccion-agricola-33119</ext-link> (consulta, enero 2024).</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<collab>SIAP, Servicio de Información Agroalimentaria y Pesquera</collab>
					</person-group>
					<year>2023</year>
					<source>Producción Agricola</source>
					<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.gob.mx/siap/acciones-y- programas/produccion-agricola-33119">https://www.gob.mx/siap/acciones-y- programas/produccion-agricola-33119</ext-link>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B33">
				<mixed-citation>Valdez JG, Makuch MA, Ordovini AF, Frisvad JC, Overy DP, Masuelli R and Piccolo RJ. 2009. Identification, pathogenicity and distribution of <italic>Penicillium</italic> spp. isolated from garlic in two regions in Argentina. Plant Pathology 58: 352-361. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3059.2008.01960.x</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Valdez</surname>
							<given-names>JG</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Makuch</surname>
							<given-names>MA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ordovini</surname>
							<given-names>AF</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Frisvad</surname>
							<given-names>JC</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Overy</surname>
							<given-names>DP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Masuelli</surname>
							<given-names>R</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Piccolo</surname>
							<given-names>RJ.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2009</year>
					<article-title>Identification, pathogenicity and distribution of Penicillium spp. isolated from garlic in two regions in Argentina</article-title>
					<source>Plant Pathology</source>
					<volume>58</volume>
					<fpage>352</fpage>
					<lpage>361</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1111/j.1365-3059.2008.01960.x</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B34">
				<mixed-citation>Valdez JG, Makuch MA, Ordovini AF, Masuelli RW, Overy DP and Piccolo RJ. 2006. First report of <italic>Penicillium allii</italic> as a field pathogen of garlic (<italic>Allium sativum</italic>). Plant Pathology 55: 583. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3059.2006.01411.x</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Valdez</surname>
							<given-names>JG</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Makuch</surname>
							<given-names>MA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ordovini</surname>
							<given-names>AF</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Masuelli</surname>
							<given-names>RW</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Overy</surname>
							<given-names>DP</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Piccolo</surname>
							<given-names>RJ.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2006</year>
					<article-title>First report of Penicillium allii as a field pathogen of garlic (Allium sativum)</article-title>
					<source>Plant Pathology</source>
					<volume>55</volume>
					<fpage>583</fpage>
					<lpage>583</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1111/j.1365-3059.2006.01411.x</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B35">
				<mixed-citation>Velásquez-Valle R, Macias-Valdez LM y Reveles-Hernández M. 2017. Patógenos comunes de semilla de ajo en Aguascalientes y Zacatecas, México. Revista mexicana de Ciencias Agrícolas 8: 1881-1885. https://doi.org/10.29312/remexca.v8i8.710</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Velásquez-Valle</surname>
							<given-names>R</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Macias-Valdez</surname>
							<given-names>LM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Reveles-Hernández</surname>
							<given-names>M.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2017</year>
					<article-title>Patógenos comunes de semilla de ajo en Aguascalientes y Zacatecas, México</article-title>
					<source>Revista mexicana de Ciencias Agrícolas</source>
					<volume>8</volume>
					<fpage>1881</fpage>
					<lpage>1885</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.29312/remexca.v8i8.710</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B36">
				<mixed-citation>Vijaykumar KN, Kulkarni S, Patil PV, Kambrekar DN and Shashidhar TR. 2021. <italic>In vitro</italic> evaluation of new molecules of fungicides against purple blotch <italic>Alternaria porri</italic> (Ellis) Ciferri of garlic (<italic>Allium sativum</italic> L.). Pharma Innovation Journal 10: 1048-1054. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.thepharmajournal.com/archives/2021/vol10issue12/PartO/10-11-159-761.pdf">https://www.thepharmajournal.com/archives/2021/vol10issue12/PartO/10-11-159-761.pdf</ext-link>
				</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Vijaykumar</surname>
							<given-names>KN</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kulkarni</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Patil</surname>
							<given-names>PV</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kambrekar</surname>
							<given-names>DN</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Shashidhar</surname>
							<given-names>TR.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2021</year>
					<article-title>In vitro evaluation of new molecules of fungicides against purple blotch Alternaria porri (Ellis) Ciferri of garlic (Allium sativum L.)</article-title>
					<source>Pharma Innovation Journal</source>
					<volume>10</volume>
					<fpage>1048</fpage>
					<lpage>1054</lpage>
					<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.thepharmajournal.com/archives/2021/vol10issue12/PartO/10-11-159-761.pdf">https://www.thepharmajournal.com/archives/2021/vol10issue12/PartO/10-11-159-761.pdf</ext-link>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B37">
				<mixed-citation>Vincent MA and Pitt JI. 1989. <italic>Penicillium allii</italic>, a new species from egyptian garlic. Mycologia 81: 300-303. https://doi.org/10.2307/3759715</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Vincent</surname>
							<given-names>MA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Pitt</surname>
							<given-names>JI.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>1989</year>
					<article-title>Penicillium allii, a new species from egyptian garlic</article-title>
					<source>Mycologia</source>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.2307/3759715</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B38">
				<mixed-citation>You O, Lee Y, Jin Y, Kim J, Hwang S, Han S and Kim J. 2007. Antifungal activity of pesticides to control dry rot and blue mold during garlic storage. The Korean Journal of Pesticide Science 11: 331-338. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://koreascience.or.kr/article/JAKO200709906341813.pdf">https://koreascience.or.kr/article/JAKO200709906341813.pdf</ext-link>
				</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>You</surname>
							<given-names>O</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Lee</surname>
							<given-names>Y</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Jin</surname>
							<given-names>Y</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kim</surname>
							<given-names>J</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Hwang</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Han</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kim</surname>
							<given-names>J.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2007</year>
					<article-title>Antifungal activity of pesticides to control dry rot and blue mold during garlic storage</article-title>
					<source>The Korean Journal of Pesticide Science</source>
					<volume>11</volume>
					<fpage>331</fpage>
					<lpage>338</lpage>
					<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://koreascience.or.kr/article/JAKO200709906341813.pdf">https://koreascience.or.kr/article/JAKO200709906341813.pdf</ext-link>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B39">
				<mixed-citation>Woudenberg JH, Groenewald JZ, Binder M and Crous PW. 2013. <italic>Alternaria</italic> redefined. Studies in Mycology 75:171-212. http://dx.doi.org/10.3114/sim0015 </mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Woudenberg</surname>
							<given-names>JH</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Groenewald</surname>
							<given-names>JZ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Binder</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Crous</surname>
							<given-names>PW.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2013</year>
					<source><italic>Alternaria</italic> redefined. Studies in Mycology</source>
					<volume>75</volume>
					<fpage>171</fpage>
					<lpage>212</lpage>
					<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3114/sim0015</pub-id>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
		</ref-list>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="en">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Scientific Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Characterization and fungicide sensitivity of fungi causing postharvest deterioration in <italic>Allium sativum</italic>, Nuevo León, Mexico</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<abstract>
				<title>ABSTRACT</title>
				<p> </p>
				<sec>
					<title>Background/Objective. </title>
					<p>Garlic (<italic>Allium sativum</italic>) is a crop of economic relevance in Mexico. Nuevo León stands out in production; however, in the municipality of Aramberri, post-harvest losses have been reported due to diseases of unknown etiology. The objective of this work was to identify the fungi associated with the postharvest deterioration of <italic>A. sativum</italic> bulbs in Aramberri, Nuevo León, Mexico and to evaluate their <italic>in vitro</italic> sensitivity to fungicides.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Materials and Methods. </title>
					<p>From bulbs with evidence of deterioration and necrosis, fungi were isolated in PDA medium. Four isolates were identified by morphological analysis and one isolate from each morphological species was identified by molecular analysis. The pathogenicity of the four isolates on symptom-free bulbil was evaluated. In addition, <italic>in vitro</italic> susceptibility tests of the isolates to protective and systemic fungicides were performed. Fungicides were evaluated at three concentrations and mycelial growth reduction (MGR) and conidial germination inhibition (CGI) was estimated.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Results. </title>
					<p>The fungi <italic>Alternaria embellisia</italic> and <italic>Penicillium allii</italic> were identified in association with</p>
					<p><italic>A. sativum</italic> bulbs with postharvest deterioration. <italic>P. allii</italic> showed the ability to develop internal infections from wounds; <italic>A. embellisia</italic> only showed growth on wounds. There were significant differences (p &lt;0.0001) in the effectiveness of fungicides on the two species. Propiconazole and copper hydroxide inhibited 100% MGR and CGI in both fungi, at all doses evaluated.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Conclusion</title>
					<p>. <italic>P. allii</italic> is first reported as a causative agent of green garlic rot in Mexico. This study will serve as a basis for choosing control strategies and will contribute significantly to reducing economic losses in garlic production in this region.</p>
				</sec>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Palabras clave:</title>
				<kwd>Carbendazim</kwd>
				<kwd>mycelial inhibition</kwd>
				<kwd>germination inhibition</kwd>
				<kwd>propiconazole</kwd>
				<kwd>tebuconazole.</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introduction</title>
				<p>Garlic (<italic>Allium sativum</italic>) is a plant from the Amaryllidaceae family and an economically significant crop, valued for its medicinal and culinary properties. In 2023, global <italic>A. sativum</italic> production reached 28.6 million tons, with an average yield of 17 t ha⁻¹ (FAOSTAT, 2024). This plant produces secondary metabolites with antioxidant, anti- inflammatory, and hypolipidemic properties that contribute to human health (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Ansary <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). Mexico plays a key role in global <italic>A. sativum</italic> production, with a cultivated area of 7,123 ha and an average yield of 12.6 t ha⁻¹ (SIAP, 2023). Nuevo León, ranks fifth place in garlic production, covering 289 ha with a yield of 11.9 t ha⁻¹. The municipality of Aramberri is the main producer, generating jobs and significant economic benefits (SEDAGRO, 2023).</p>
				<p>Postharvest losses in garlic production occur mainly due to bulb rot (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Sholberg and Conway, 2016</xref>). Several fungal pathogens have been identified as causal agents, including <italic>Sclerotium cepivorum</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Burba, 2003</xref>); <italic>Alternaria embellisia</italic> (syn. <italic>Embellisia allii</italic>); <italic>Botrytis porri</italic>; <italic>Aspergillus niger</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Dugan <italic>et al.,</italic> 2007</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Khatoon <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>); <italic>A. ochraceus</italic>; <italic>Fusarium oxysporum</italic>; <italic>F. proliferatum</italic>; <italic>Penicillium hirsutum</italic> (Dugan <italic>et al</italic>., 2007); <italic>P. allii</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Valdez <italic>et al.,</italic> 2009</xref>); <italic>F. solani</italic>; and <italic>Stemphylium vesicarium</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Gálvez and Palmero, 2021</xref>). In Mexico, little information is available on fungi that attack <italic>A. sativum</italic> under storage conditions. However, some fungi have been reported in bulbs collected directly from the field, including <italic>Fusarium verticillioides</italic>, <italic>F. acuminatum</italic>, <italic>F. solani</italic>, and <italic>F. oxysporum</italic> (Ochoa-Fuentes <italic>et al</italic>., 2012). In stored bulbs, the presence of <italic>P. hirsutum</italic> Dierckx and <italic>P. citrinum</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Hernández-Anguiano <italic>et al.</italic>, 2006</xref>), <italic>A. embellisia</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Delgado-Ortiz <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>), and the taxa <italic>Ulocladium</italic> sp., <italic>Curvularia</italic> sp., and <italic>Verticillium</italic> sp. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Velásquez-Valle <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>) has been documented. These reports come from the states of Aguascalientes, Guanajuato, Coahuila, and Zacatecas, respectively. Some <italic>A. sativum</italic> diseases begin infecting plants during field development and continue progressing during storage. Additionally, certain pathogens can remain dormant and only develop in the postharvest phase (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Chrétien <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). Effective disease management requires an integrated control system in which selecting and applying efficient phytosanitary products can help reduce</p>
				<p>the incidence of postharvest diseases.</p>
				<p>In Nuevo León, symptoms of bulb rot have been observed under storage conditions in various plots in La Ascensión, Aramberri. This disease was first detected in 2017, with symptoms and signs including bulb cankers, cataphyll spots, black hyphae, and green mold. However, the causal agent(s) responsible for these infections in stored bulbs remain unidentified. Therefore, this study aimed to identify the fungi associated with postharvest deterioration of <italic>A. sativum</italic> bulbs in Aramberri, Nuevo León, Mexico, and to evaluate their <italic>in vitro</italic> sensitivity to fungicides. Understanding the causal agents and fungicide efficacy will aid in decision-making for postharvest disease control in <italic>A. sativum</italic>.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="materials|methods">
				<title>Materials and Methods</title>
				<p>Sampling and isolation of fungi. In January 2022, five samples of infested garlic bulbs of the “Don Fermín” variety were collected from four storage facilities owned by producers in La Ascensión, Aramberri, Nuevo León, Mexico. The collected bulbs showed visible signs of deterioration and necrosis. The samples were placed in airtight polyethylene bags and transported in coolers to the Phytopathology Laboratory at the Faculty of Agronomy, Autonomous University of Nuevo León, for processing.</p>
				<p>Five infected bulbs were individually washed with sterile distilled water (SDW) and disinfected by immersion in 70% ethanol and 1% sodium hypochlorite for 1 min. This was followed by two additional rinses with SDW, each lasting two minutes. Five symptomatic tissue fragments were excised from each bulb and placed onto potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium. The Petri dishes containing the inoculated fragments were incubated at 25 ± 1 °C for seven days in darkness. A fragment of the PDA medium containing fungal mycelium was then transferred to a new Petri dish with PDA medium. From these polysporic isolates, monospore isolates were obtained.</p>
				<p>To achieve this, a conidial suspension was prepared at a concentration of 1 × 10³ conidia mL⁻¹, and 50 µL of the suspension was placed onto PDA plates. The plates were incubated at 25 °C and observed starting at 12 hours to identify germinated conidia isolated from others. The agar section containing a single germinated conidium was excised and transferred to a new PDA plate to develop the monospore isolate, following the procedures outlined by SENASICA (2016).</p>
				<p>Morphological identification. Morphological identification at the genus and species level was conducted based on colony characteristics and micromorphology, following the criteria described by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Vincent and Pitt (1989</xref>), <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Valdez <italic>et al.</italic> (2006</xref>), <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Lee <italic>et al.</italic> (2002</xref>), and Woudenberg <italic>et al</italic>. (2013). For this purpose, monospore isolates grown for seven days on PDA medium were used. Macroscopic characteristics, including colony size, shape, and conidial production, were evaluated.</p>
				<p>Microscopic structures were obtained by inoculating a spore suspension onto PDA fragments, placing a sterile coverslip over the medium, and incubating the samples in a humid chamber. The morphology of conidiophores, phialides, conidia, and chlamydospores was observed using a ZEISS Scope.A1 microscope at 40× magnification. Photodocumentation of microscopic structures and micrometry were performed using ZEN lite® software.</p>
				<p>Molecular identification. For each species identified morphologically, a single isolate was selected for molecular identification. DNA extraction was performed using the CTAB method from seven-day-old monospore cultures. DNA concentration was estimated by spectrophotometry (NanoDrop 2000, Thermo Scientific®). Two genomic regions were amplified by PCR: the ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 region of nuclear rDNA (ITS) for the morphologically identified species <italic>A. embellisia</italic>, and a partial sequence of the <italic>β- tubulin</italic> (B-TUB) gene for <italic>P. allii</italic>.</p>
				<p>The ITS region was amplified using the primers ITS5 (5’-GCA AGT AAA AGT CGT AAC AAG G-3’) and ITS4 (5’-TCC TCC GCT TAT TGA TAT GC-3’). Partial</p>
				<p>amplification of the <italic>β-tubulin</italic> gene was carried out using the primers Bt2a (5´-GGT AAC CAA ATC GGT GCT GCT TTC-3’) and Bt2b (5’-ACC CTC AGT GTA GTG ACC CTT</p>
				<p>GGC-3’). PCR conditions for both genes included an initial denaturation at 94 °C for 2 min, followed by 40 cycles of 94 °C for 30 s, 55 °C for 45 s, and 72 °C for 90 s, with a final extension at 72 °C for 4 min. Amplifications were performed in 25 µL reaction volumes containing 1X buffer, 1.5 mM MgCl₂, 0.2 mM dNTPs, 0.4 µM of each primer (IDT), 1 unit of <italic>Taq</italic> DNA polymerase (Promega), and 20 ng of template DNA.</p>
				<p>Amplicons were purified and sequenced by Psomagen (USA). The obtained sequences were compared against the non-redundant sequence database of the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). For phylogenetic analysis, sequences were aligned using MUSCLE (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Edgar, 2004</xref>) implemented in MEGA-X (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Kumar <italic>et al.,</italic> 2018</xref>). jModelTest v2 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Darriba <italic>et al.,</italic> 2012</xref>) was used to determine the most suitable nucleotide evolution model based on Akaike’s information criterion. Phylogenetic analysis was performed with IQ-TREE v2 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Minh <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>), which applies the Maximum Likelihood algorithm, using the CIPRES Science Gateway v3.3 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Miller <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>). The Hasegawa- Kishino-Yano substitution model with a discrete Gamma distribution for rate heterogeneity (HKY + G) was used. Phylogenetic trees were visualized and edited with iTOL (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Letunic <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>).</p>
				<p>Pathogenicity tests. Pathogenicity tests were conducted following the methodology of <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Gálvez and Palmero (2021</xref>), using two isolates per fungal species. Symptom-free garlic bulbs of the &quot;Don Fermín&quot; variety were selected. The outer scales were removed, and the cloves were disinfected by immersing them in 1% sodium hypochlorite for 1 min.</p>
				<p>Each clove was wounded by removing a 5 mm diameter tissue fragment with a biopsy punch, creating a cavity approximately 4 mm deep. As inoculum, 5 mm diameter PDA agar plugs containing seven-day-old fungal mycelium were placed into the wounds. Control cloves were inoculated with PDA plugs without the pathogen. Five replicates were prepared for each fungal species.</p>
				<p>After inoculation, the cloves were placed in a humid chamber and incubated at 25 °C for 14 days. Once lesions developed, tissue fragments were taken from the affected areas, rinsed with sterile distilled water (SDW), and placed onto PDA plates for incubation under the previously described conditions. The colonies that grew from these fragments were purified and morphologically identified. The successful re-isolation of the inoculated fungi confirmed compliance with Koch’s postulates. The pathogenicity tests were performed twice to ensure consistency and reproducibility.</p>
				<p><bold>
 <italic>In vitro</italic> fungicide sensitivity test.</bold> A single isolate from each identified species was tested for sensitivity to eight fungicides, four of which were systemic and four protectant (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 1</xref>). Each fungicide was evaluated at three concentrations: 1X (the manufacturer's recommended dose), 0.5X, and 1.5X. Based on the recommended dose of the formulated product, the corresponding amount of active ingredient (g a.i. L⁻¹) was determined, considering the concentration in the commercial product. The chemicals were added to the PDA medium before pouring it into Petri dishes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Erhonyota <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>). The fungicides and their respective concentrations are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 1</xref>. The effect of the fungicides was evaluated on mycelial growth reduction (MGR) and conidial germination inhibition (CGI).</p>
				<p>Seven-day-old fungal cultures grown on PDA medium were used to assess the effect of fungicides on mycelial growth reduction (MGR) and conidial germination inhibition (CGI) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 1</xref>). For MGR, 5 mm diameter plugs were extracted and individually placed at the center of Petri dishes containing PDA medium with the respective fungicide concentrations. The inoculated plates were incubated at 25 ± 0.5 °C, and MGR was recorded every 24 hours until the control (medium without fungicide) fully covered the plate. For CGI evaluation, a suspension of 5 × 10⁶ conidia mL⁻¹ was prepared, and 30 μL were deposited onto PDA medium with the same treatments used for MGR evaluation, with five replicates (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 1</xref>). A sterile coverslip was placed over the inoculated spore suspension, and the plates were incubated at 25 ± 0.5 °C. Readings of 100 conidia per experimental unit were taken every 2 h until the control of each fungal species reached 90% germination. Conidia were considered germinated when the germ tube reached at least half the spore length. The inhibition percentage for MGR and CGI was calculated using the formulas IMGR = [(MGRtest - MGRtreat) / MGRtest] × 100, where IMGR = inhibition of mycelial growth (percentage), MGRtest = mycelial growth in the control treatment, and MGRtreat = mycelial growth in the fungicide treatment. Similarly, the inhibition percentage of CGI was calculated using the formula ICGI = [ (CGItest - CGItreat) / CGItest] × 100, where ICGI = inhibition of conidial germination (percentage), CGItest = conidial germination in the control treatment, and CGItreat = conidial germination in the fungicide treatment.</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t3">
						<label>Table 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Systemic and protectant fungicides evaluated against <italic>Alternaria embellisia</italic> and <italic>Penicillium allii</italic>.</title>
						</caption>
						<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th rowspan="2" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Active Ingredient</th>
									<th rowspan="2" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Manufacture r</th>
									<th rowspan="2" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Chemical group</th>
									<th rowspan="2" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Mode of action</th>
									<th colspan="3" style="border-bottom:0px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Dose (g AI L-1)z</th>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">0.5x</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">1xy</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">1.5x</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td>Propiconazole</td>
									<td>Syngenta</td>
									<td>Triazole</td>
									<td>Systemic</td>
									<td>0.625</td>
									<td>1.25</td>
									<td>1.875</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Thiabendazole</td>
									<td>Syngenta</td>
									<td>Benzimidazole</td>
									<td>Systemic</td>
									<td>0.45</td>
									<td>0.9</td>
									<td>1.35</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Carbendazim</td>
									<td>AgroLucava</td>
									<td>Benzimidazole</td>
									<td>Systemic</td>
									<td>0.5</td>
									<td>1</td>
									<td>1.5</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Azoxystrobin + Ciproconazole</td>
									<td>Syngenta</td>
									<td>Methoxyacrylates + Triazole</td>
									<td>Systemic</td>
									<td>0.15/0.05</td>
									<td>0.3/0.11</td>
									<td>0.45/0.16</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Copper oxychloride</td>
									<td>Cuprosa</td>
									<td>Cupric</td>
									<td>Protective</td>
									<td>6.525</td>
									<td>13.05</td>
									<td>19.575</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Captan</td>
									<td>Mexfer</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>Protective</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>Phthalamides</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>3.125</td>
									<td>6.25</td>
									<td>9.375</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Copper hydroxide</td>
									<td>Cuprosa</td>
									<td>Cupric</td>
									<td>Protective</td>
									<td>3.75</td>
									<td>7.5</td>
									<td>11.25</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Tea tree oil</td>
									<td>Syngenta</td>
									<td>Monoterpenes</td>
									<td>Protective</td>
									<td>0.555</td>
									<td>1.11</td>
									<td>1.665</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN5">
								<label><sup>
 <italic>y</italic>
</sup></label>
								<p> Recommended dose by the manufacturer<sup>
 <italic>.</italic>
</sup></p>
							</fn>
							<fn id="TFN6">
								<label><sup>
 <italic>z</italic>
</sup></label>
								<p> g AI = grams of active ingredient<italic>.</italic></p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>Statistical analysis. The effectiveness data for MGR and CGI were analyzed for each fungal species using a completely randomized experimental design. Before analysis, the data were transformed using the arcsine square root of the proportion. Treatment comparisons were then performed through an analysis of variance with a significance level of p ≤ 0.05, followed by a post hoc Tukey test using the SAS® software (version 9.0; SAS Institute, Cary, N.C.).</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="results|discussion">
				<title>Results and Discussion</title>
				<p>Observed symptoms. The bulbs exhibited cataphylls with gray and black spots (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 1</xref>A), black mycelium between the cataphylls, and mold on the surface. Some bulbils showed superficial necrosis with a dry appearance and black sporulation, without progression into the interior of the bulbil. These symptoms were associated with <italic>Alternaria</italic> sp. Other bulbils displayed necrotic lesions with a yellowish border, sunken and watery in appearance, progressing into the interior of the bulbil. Additionally, they showed mycelial growth and green sporulation. These symptoms were associated with</p>
				<p><italic>Penicillium</italic> sp. (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 1</xref>B).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f6">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>A. <italic>Allium sativum</italic> bulbs of the &quot;Don Fermín&quot; variety showing postharvest deterioration. B. <italic>A. sativum</italic> bulbils with cankers and green mold.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-02-RMEXFIT24062-gf6.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Morphological Characterization. Four isolates were obtained from <italic>Allium sativum</italic> bulbs showing postharvest deterioration (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 1</xref>): AL1D2B, AL1D3B, AL1D4B, and AL1D5B. Isolates AL1D2B and AL1D3B, obtained from superficial cankers, developed diffuse brownish-black colonies with both superficial and immersed mycelium (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 2</xref>A). Conidiophores were simple or branched, straight or flexible, measuring up to 83 μm in length and 5-10 μm in width (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 2</xref>B-E). Conidia were brown, solitary, smooth, oblong, with 4 to 6 transverse septa (commonly 4), measuring 19.0-34.6 μm in length and 9-12.9 μm in width (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 2</xref>F). Chlamydospores were terminal and intercalary, thick-walled, dark brown, and developed from hyphal cells (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 2</xref>G-H). These morphological characteristics are consistent with those described by Woudenberg <italic>et al.</italic> (2013) and <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Delgado-Ortiz et al. (2019</xref>) for <italic>Alternaria embellisia</italic> (syn. <italic>Embellisia allii</italic>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f7">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title><italic>Alternaria embellisia</italic> (syn. <italic>Embellisia allii</italic>), isolates AL1D2B and AL1D3B. <bold>A</bold>. Seven-day-old colony growing on PDA medium at 25 °C<bold>. B, C</bold>. Simple conidiophore and solitary conidium. <bold>D, E</bold>. Branched conidiophore. <bold>F</bold>. Septate conidia. <bold>G, H</bold>. Chlamydospores.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-02-RMEXFIT24062-gf7.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>The isolates AL1D4B and AL1D5B, obtained from lesions with mycelial growth and green sporulation, developed radially furrowed colonies that were moderately dense, with submerged margins and white mycelium, exhibiting moderate conidiogenesis and a dull green color (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figure 3</xref>A). Conidiophores with rough walls emerged from superficial hyphae in fascicles, with a short and robust basal cell measuring 96-155 × 3.4-5.1 μm (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figure 3</xref>B-D). Terminal penicilli had subterminal branches and recurrent branches with rough walls, typically with a single branch per penicillus, occasionally grouped into clusters of 2 to 3. Phialides were ampulliform, arranged in clusters of 2 to 4, measuring</p>
				<p>6.4-11 × 2.7-3.3 μm. Conidia were spherical to subspherical, smooth-walled, and arranged in chains, with an average diameter of 3.6-4.9 μm (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figure 3</xref>E). These characteristics are consistent with those described by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Vincent and Pitt (1989</xref>) and <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Valdez <italic>et al.</italic> (2006</xref>) for <italic>Penicillium allii</italic>.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f8">
						<label>Figure 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title><italic>Penicillium allii</italic>, isolates AL1D4B and AL1D5B. <bold>A</bold>. Seven-day-old colony growing on PDA medium at 25 °C<bold>. B</bold>. Conidiophore showing stipe and metula with rough walls. <bold>C</bold>. Conidiophore. <bold>D</bold>. Conidiophore with phialides and conidiation forming chains. <bold>E</bold>. Conidia. <bold>F, G</bold>. Terminal and intercalary chlamydospores.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-02-RMEXFIT24062-gf8.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Molecular Characterization. The ITS region sequence of isolate AL1D2B (585 bp, GenBank accession number: PP869831) was 99.8% identical to the sequence reported for</p>
				<p><italic>A. embellisia</italic> (MH899088) in Mexico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Delgado-Ortiz <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Similarly, the β- tubulin region sequence of isolate AL1D4B (433 bp, GenBank accession number: PP920512) was 99.3% identical to the sequence reported for <italic>P. allii</italic> (MW244893) in Spain (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Gálvez and Palmero, 2021</xref>). The phylogenetic tree constructed for <italic>A. embellisia</italic> (AL1D2B) showed bootstrap support of 100%, distinguishing our isolate from other <italic>Alternaria</italic> species and clustering it with <italic>A. embellisia</italic> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figure 4</xref>A). Likewise, the phylogeny for <italic>P. allii</italic> (AL1D4B) exhibited bootstrap values of 100%, placing this isolate within <italic>P. allii</italic> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figure 4</xref>B).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f9">
						<label>Figure 4</label>
						<caption>
							<title>A. Maximum likelihood phylogenetic tree constructed from partial sequences of the internal transcribed spacer 1 and 2 regions within the 5.8S rDNA subunit for the isolation of <italic>Alternaria embellisia</italic> (GenBank accession number: PP869831). B. Maximum likelihood phylogenetic tree constructed from partial sequences of the β-tubulin gene for the isolation of <italic>Penicillium allii</italic> (GenBank accession number: PP920512); both obtained from garlic bulb samples with postharvest rot in Aramberri, Nuevo León. Data for other <italic>Alternaria</italic> strains and species were obtained from <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Pryor and Bigelow (2003</xref>), while data for other <italic>Penicillium</italic> strains and species were sourced from <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Samson et al. (2004</xref>). The numbers next to the nodes indicate bootstrap support values in percentage.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-02-RMEXFIT24062-gf9.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Pathogenicity Tests. The pathogenicity test conducted on <italic>A. sativum</italic> bulbils confirmed the pathogenicity of <italic>P. allii</italic> strains AL1D4B and AL1D5B, evaluated 14 days after</p>
				<p>inoculation (dpi). All bulbils inoculated with <italic>P. allii</italic> developed sunken necrotic lesions with mycelial growth, green sporulation, and internal progression of the rot (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figure 4</xref>A). Similar results were reported by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Gálvez and Palmero (2021</xref>), who observed sunken, watery lesions with green mycelial growth and internal lesion progression after inoculating garlic bulbils with <italic>P. allii</italic>.</p>
				<p>Conversely, all bulbils inoculated with <italic>A. embellisia</italic> (AL1D2B and AL1D3B) exhibited mycelial growth and dark brown sporulation confined to the wound site created for inoculation at 14 dpi (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figure 4</xref>B). This observation aligns with the findings of <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Delgado-Ortiz <italic>et al</italic>. (2019</xref>) for <italic>A. embellisia</italic>, where <italic>A. sativum</italic> bulbs showed superficial growth, brown mycelium, and dark brown sporulation. Control bulbils showed no fungal infection (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figure 4</xref>C). The inoculated isolates that were re-isolated from infected tissue in all tested bulbils exhibited the same characteristics as the original isolates.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f10">
						<label>Figure 5</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Pathogenicity test of (A) <italic>Penicillium allii</italic> (AL1D4B) and (B) <italic>Alternaria embellisia</italic> (AL1D2B) on <italic>Allium sativum</italic> bulbils, 14 days after inoculation. (C) Control. Each bulbil in the same column represents repetitions of the isolate.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="2007-8080-rmfi-43-02-RMEXFIT24062-gf10.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Vincent and Pitt (1989</xref>) were the first to report and describe <italic>P. allii</italic> as the causal agent of <italic>A. sativum</italic> bulbil rot in Egypt. Subsequently, <italic>P. allii</italic> was identified as the cause of green garlic rot in the United States, China, Argentina, Egypt, and Spain (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Dugan, 2007</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Valdez <italic>et al</italic>., 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Moharam <italic>et al.,</italic> 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Gálvez and Palmero, 2021</xref>). According to Gálvez and Palmero (2021), this fungus is one of the most virulent fungal pathogens affecting garlic plants both in the field and during storage in Spain. These authors also reported that <italic>P. allii</italic> is more virulent in wounded bulbils and that this pathogen requires pre-existing wounds to develop. In Mexico, green garlic rot in stored bulbs has been attributed to <italic>P. hirsutum</italic> and <italic>P. citrinum</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Hernández-Anguiano <italic>et al</italic>., 2006</xref>). To our knowledge, this is the first report of <italic>P. allii</italic> causing green rot in <italic>A. sativum</italic> bulbs under storage conditions in Mexico.</p>
				<p>On the other hand, <italic>A. embellisia</italic> has been reported as the causal agent of cankers in stored bulbs and spots on the cataphylls of <italic>A. sativum</italic> bulbs and bulbils (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Lee and Magan, 2010</xref>). This species was identified by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Dugan <italic>et al.</italic> (2007</xref>) as a significant cause of losses in <italic>A. sativum</italic> bulbs during germplasm regeneration and storage for the National Plant Germplasm System in Pullman, Washington, USA. Additionally, this pathogen was reported as the causal agent of garlic bulb canker in Coahuila, Mexico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Delgado-Ortiz <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>). According to Lee <italic>et al</italic>. (2002), bulb canker caused by <italic>A. embellisia</italic> is considered a minor disease. However, due to the discoloration of symptoms, this disease can reduce the commercial value of <italic>A. sativum</italic>. Moreover, the presence of this fungus in bulbs can serve as a primary inoculum source and facilitate long-distance dispersal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Gálvez and Palmero, 2021</xref>).</p>
				<p><bold>
 <italic>In Vitro</italic> Sensitivity Tests to Fungicides.</bold> 
 <italic>A. embellisia</italic> and <italic>P. allii</italic> exhibited <italic>in vitro</italic> sensitivity to all evaluated fungicides, including both systemic and protectant types (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 2</xref>). There were highly significant differences (<italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.0001) in the effectiveness of the fungicides on the MGR and CGI of <italic>A. embellisia</italic>. In this case, the systemic fungicide propiconazole and the protectant fungicide copper hydroxide inhibited 100% of MGR and CGI at all three tested doses (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 2</xref>). Similarly, the azoxystrobin + cyproconazole mixture inhibited 100% of MGR at all three doses but only inhibited CGI within a range of 40% to 85.9%, depending on the dose. Likewise, the fungicide captan inhibited 100% of CGI at all doses but only inhibited MGR within a range of 85% to 87% across the three evaluated doses. The fungicides with the lowest effectiveness against the MGR of <italic>A. embellisia</italic> were carbendazim, with a maximum effectiveness of 47% at the highest dose, and thiabendazole, with 76% effectiveness at the highest dose tested. The fungicides with the lowest effectiveness against CGI were thiabendazole (73% effectiveness) and tea tree oil (38.7% effectiveness) at the maximum evaluated dose (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 2</xref>).</p>
				<p>There were also highly significant differences (<italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.0001) in the effectiveness of the fungicides on the MGR and CGI of <italic>P. allii</italic>. The systemic fungicide propiconazole and the protectant fungicide copper hydroxide inhibited 100% of MGR and CGI at all three tested doses (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 2</xref>). Similarly, the protectant fungicide copper oxychloride inhibited 100% of MGR and CGI starting from the commercial dose (13.05 g.i.a. L⁻¹). Captan inhibited 100% of CGI at all evaluated doses but only achieved 100% MGR inhibition at the highest tested dose (9.3 g.i.a. L⁻¹). Likewise, carbendazim inhibited 100% of CGI only at 1.5 g.i.a. L⁻¹. The azoxystrobin + cyproconazole mixture inhibited 100% of CGI starting at 0.3/0.11 g.i.a. L⁻¹, while its effectiveness against MGR ranged from 83% to 89%.</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t4">
						<label>Table 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Effectiveness of systemic and protectant fungicides on mycelial growth and spore germination of <italic>Alternaria embellisia</italic> and <italic>Penicillium allii in vitro</italic>.</title>
						</caption>
						<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th colspan="2" style="border-bottom:0px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;"/>
									<th colspan="7" style="border-bottom:0px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;"> Alternaria embellisia </th>
									<th style="border-bottom:0px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;"/>
									<th colspan="7" style="border-bottom:0px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Penicillium allii</th>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;"> Fungicide</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Dose (g AI L-1) y</th>
									<th colspan="3" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Mycelial growth reduction (%)z</th>
									<th colspan="4" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Germination inhibition (%)z</th>
									<th colspan="4" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Mycelial growth reduction (%)z</th>
									<th colspan="4" style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Germination inhibition (%)z</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td> </td>
									<td>0</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>0</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>0</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>0</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>0</td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td colspan="2">Control</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
									<td> </td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td> </td>
									<td>0.625</td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Propiconazole</td>
									<td>1.25</td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td> </td>
									<td>1.875</td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td> </td>
									<td>0.45</td>
									<td>71.7</td>
									<td>±0.5</td>
									<td>C</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>35.1</td>
									<td>±7.4</td>
									<td>F</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>38.9</td>
									<td style="text-align:right">±2.2</td>
									<td>GH</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>50.0</td>
									<td>±4.1</td>
									<td>F</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Thiabendazole</td>
									<td>0.9</td>
									<td>75.1</td>
									<td>±1.4</td>
									<td>C</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>71.5</td>
									<td>±4.1</td>
									<td>E</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>51.5</td>
									<td style="text-align:right">±2.7</td>
									<td>F</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>48.0</td>
									<td>±2.4</td>
									<td>F</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td> </td>
									<td>1.35</td>
									<td>76.6</td>
									<td>±1.2</td>
									<td>C</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>73.1</td>
									<td>±3.6</td>
									<td>E</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>62.1</td>
									<td style="text-align:right">±1.2</td>
									<td>E</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>48.5</td>
									<td>±4.3</td>
									<td>F</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td> </td>
									<td>0.5</td>
									<td>34.6</td>
									<td>±8.1</td>
									<td>E</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>93.3</td>
									<td>±0.6</td>
									<td>CB</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>28.4</td>
									<td style="text-align:right">±3.5</td>
									<td>I</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>92.5</td>
									<td>±2.4</td>
									<td>CD</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Carbendazim</td>
									<td>1.0</td>
									<td>36.5</td>
									<td>±4.3</td>
									<td>E</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>97.4</td>
									<td>±1.0</td>
									<td>B</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>33.1</td>
									<td style="text-align:right">±4.1</td>
									<td>HI</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>93.7</td>
									<td>±3.1</td>
									<td>CB</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td> </td>
									<td>1.5</td>
									<td>47.5</td>
									<td>±5.0</td>
									<td>D</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>33.4</td>
									<td style="text-align:right">±6.4</td>
									<td>IH</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td> </td>
									<td>0.15/0.05</td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>41.0</td>
									<td>±8.2</td>
									<td>F</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>83.4</td>
									<td style="text-align:right">±3.0</td>
									<td>D</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>36.2</td>
									<td>±4.5</td>
									<td>G</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td rowspan="2">Azoxystrobin + Ciproconazole</td>
									<td>0.3/0.11</td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>88.2</td>
									<td>±1.7</td>
									<td>DC</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>85.6</td>
									<td style="text-align:right">±1.6</td>
									<td>D</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>0.45/0.16</td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>85.9</td>
									<td>±3.6</td>
									<td>D</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>89.7</td>
									<td style="text-align:right">±0.6</td>
									<td>B</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td> </td>
									<td>6.525</td>
									<td>71.9</td>
									<td>±3.5</td>
									<td>C</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>66.7</td>
									<td>±6.7</td>
									<td>E</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>91.2</td>
									<td>±0.5</td>
									<td>CD</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td rowspan="2">Copper oxychloride</td>
									<td>13.05</td>
									<td>84.9</td>
									<td>±1.4</td>
									<td>B</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>86.9</td>
									<td>±2.3</td>
									<td>CD</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>19.575</td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>87.3</td>
									<td>±1.4</td>
									<td>DC</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td> </td>
									<td>3.125</td>
									<td>87.6</td>
									<td>±2.3</td>
									<td>B</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>92.9</td>
									<td style="text-align:right">±1.0</td>
									<td>B</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Captan</td>
									<td>6.25</td>
									<td>85.6</td>
									<td>±1.9</td>
									<td>B</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>90.3</td>
									<td style="text-align:right">±2.5</td>
									<td>B</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td> </td>
									<td>9.375</td>
									<td>85.9</td>
									<td>±1.3</td>
									<td>B</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td> </td>
									<td>3.75</td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Copper hydroxide</td>
									<td>7.5</td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td> </td>
									<td>1.665</td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td> </td>
									<td>0.55</td>
									<td>45.3</td>
									<td>±3.4</td>
									<td>D</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>7.9</td>
									<td>±0.5</td>
									<td>G</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>15.4</td>
									<td style="text-align:right">±1.9</td>
									<td>J</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>78.5</td>
									<td>±1.9</td>
									<td>E</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Tea tree oil</td>
									<td>1.11</td>
									<td>71.8</td>
									<td>±2.6</td>
									<td>C</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>20.7</td>
									<td>±8.2</td>
									<td>G</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>32.2</td>
									<td style="text-align:right">±4.0</td>
									<td>I</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>88.7</td>
									<td>±1.5</td>
									<td>D</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td> </td>
									<td>1.665</td>
									<td>100</td>
									<td>±0</td>
									<td>A</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>38.7</td>
									<td>±8.3</td>
									<td>F</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>44.9</td>
									<td style="text-align:right">±0.5</td>
									<td>FG</td>
									<td> </td>
									<td>96.0</td>
									<td>±1.4</td>
									<td>B</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN7">
								<p>yg AI = grams of active ingredient<sup>
 <italic>.</italic>
</sup></p>
							</fn>
							<fn id="TFN8">
								<p>z Means with the same letter within the same column are not statistically different (Tukey, <italic>P</italic> &lt; 0.05).</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>The fungicides with the lowest effectiveness against the MGR of <italic>P. allii</italic> were thiabendazole, with a maximum effectiveness of 62% at the highest dose, carbendazim, with a maximum effectiveness of 33% at the highest dose, and tea tree oil, with a maximum effectiveness of 44.9% at the highest dose. The fungicide with the lowest effectiveness against CGI was thiabendazole, which showed 50% effectiveness at the highest dose tested, while tea tree oil showed CGI inhibition of 78% at the lowest dose and 96% at the highest dose evaluated.</p>
				<p>According to <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Dugan <italic>et al</italic>. (2007</xref>), the use of fungicides can reduce bulb and bulbil infections in postharvest storage. However, it is important to consider the safety intervals of different active ingredients and the postharvest period. In this study, propiconazole and copper hydroxide demonstrated <italic>in vitro</italic> effectiveness against the MGR and CGI of <italic>A. embellisia</italic> at all tested doses.</p>
				<p>Propiconazole is a systemic fungicide that inhibits methylation in ergosterol biosynthesis, causing disruption of the fungal cell membrane, which halts its growth (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Marzi <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>). Due to its systemic nature, this fungicide provides both preventive and curative protection, with persistence varying depending on the dose used and environmental conditions. Additionally, it can translocate into plant tissues, making it essential to consider pre-harvest intervals to ensure food safety. According to <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Gopinath <italic>et al.</italic> (2006</xref>), propiconazole can be metabolized in plants through the gradual degradation of its residues in plant tissues. Currently, no information is available regarding the use of propiconazole against <italic>A. embellisia</italic> in garlic crops. However, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Vijaykumar <italic>et al</italic>. (2021</xref>) reported 100% effectiveness of tebuconazole, a fungicide from the same chemical group as propiconazole, against the mycelial growth of <italic>A. porri</italic>, a pathogen of <italic>A. sativum</italic> in India.</p>
				<p>Copper hydroxide, on the other hand, is a protectant fungicide that offers preventive protection, acts through a multisite mechanism, has low toxicity, and presents a low risk of resistance development (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Gaviria-Hernández <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>). This fungicide primarily acts during the spore germination stage. At the cellular level, it reacts with sulfhydryl, hydroxyl, amino, and carboxyl groups, inactivating them and disrupting the respiratory chain (Gaviria-Hernández <italic>et al.,</italic> 2013). According to our literature review, no information is available regarding the use of copper hydroxide against <italic>A. embellisia</italic>. Other fungicides that have been effective in controlling <italic>A. embellisia</italic> in <italic>A. sativum</italic> bulbs stored in germplasm banks include fludioxonil (chemical group: phenylpyrroles) and thiophanate-methyl (chemical group: carbamates) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Dugan <italic>et al</italic>., 2007</xref>).</p>
				<p>Propiconazole and copper hydroxide also demonstrated 100% <italic>in vitro</italic> effectiveness against the MGR and CGI of <italic>P. allii</italic> at all tested doses. Similarly, no information is available regarding the use of propiconazole and copper hydroxide against <italic>P. allii</italic> in garlic cultivation. However, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">You <italic>et al.</italic> (2007</xref>) reported 100% effectiveness of tebuconazole against <italic>P. hirsutum</italic>, the causal agent of blue mold in <italic>A. sativum</italic> in Korea.</p>
				<p>Additionally, the fungicides copper oxychloride and captan were effective against <italic>P. allii</italic>, inhibiting 100% of both MGR and CGI at doses of 13.05 g.i.a. L⁻¹ and 9.3 g.i.a. L⁻¹, respectively. Like copper hydroxide, copper oxychloride is a protectant fungicide that acts by releasing copper ions, operating through a multisite mechanism that provides preventive protection (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Ackermann <italic>et al</italic>., 2000</xref>). Due to its multisite action, this compound has a low probability of resistance development in fungi (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Fani <italic>et al.,</italic> 2021</xref>). Like other copper-based fungicides, copper oxychloride can persist on the surface of treated tissues, making it essential to follow usage recommendations and safety intervals to minimize copper residue accumulation in harvested products.</p>
				<p>Captan, on the other hand, is a broad-spectrum, multisite fungicide that reacts with sulfhydryl enzymes, leading to the production of thiophosgene, a toxic substance for fungal cells. It interferes with the cellular respiration process in fungi, inhibiting spore germination and hindering mycelial growth and development. This fungicide has been used for over 50 years, with no reports of systemic toxicity (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Ackermann <italic>et al.,</italic> 2000</xref>). To our knowledge, no information is available regarding the use of copper oxychloride and captan against <italic>P. allii</italic>.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusions</title>
				<p>This study identified <italic>A. embellisia</italic> and <italic>P. allii</italic> as fungi associated with the postharvest deterioration of <italic>A. sativum</italic> in Aramberri, Nuevo León, Mexico. Pathogenicity tests confirmed that <italic>P. allii</italic> causes green rot in garlic, demonstrating its ability to develop internal infections from wounds. This is the first report of <italic>P. allii</italic> as a causal agent of green rot in garlic in Mexico. <italic>A. embellisia</italic> was only able to grow on wounds, also contributing to the deterioration of <italic>A. sativum</italic> bulbs. The systemic fungicide propiconazole and the protectant fungicide copper hydroxide were the most effective, inhibiting 100% of both mycelial growth and conidial germination of <italic>P. allii</italic> and <italic>A. embellisia in vitro</italic> at all tested doses. Additionally, copper oxychloride and captan also exhibited high efficacy against <italic>P. allii</italic> and <italic>A. embellisia</italic>. The knowledge generated in this study provides a foundation for selecting control strategies and will contribute significantly to reducing economic losses in garlic production in this region. Further <italic>in vivo</italic> evaluations are necessary, applying fungicides in both preharvest and postharvest conditions.</p>
			</sec>
		</body>
		<back>
			<ack>
				<title>Conflicts of interest</title>
				<p>The authors explicitly declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding this research.</p>
			</ack>
		</back>
	</sub-article>
</article>