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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">rmfi</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Revista mexicana de fitopatología</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Rev. mex. fitopatol</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">0185-3309</issn>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2007-8080</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedad Mexicana de Fitopatología A.C.</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.18781/R.MEX.FIT.2407-2</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="other">00012</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Nota Fitopatológica</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Sustrato degradado de <italic>Pleurotus ostreatus</italic> como nematicida de <italic>Nacobbus aberrans</italic> en plantas de chile (<italic>Capsicum annuum</italic>)</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Porte-Argueta</surname>
						<given-names>Ricardo Del</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Téllez-Téllez</surname>
						<given-names>Maura</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Acosta-Urdapilleta</surname>
						<given-names>Ma. de Lourdes</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Gómez-Rodríguez</surname>
						<given-names>Olga</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Wong-Villarreal</surname>
						<given-names>Arnoldo</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Carreño-Campos</surname>
						<given-names>Christian</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Aguilar-Marcelino</surname>
						<given-names>Liliana</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas de la Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos. Av. Universidad No. 1001, Colonia Chamilpa, Cuernavaca, Morelos, México. C.P. 62209; </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<city>Cuernavaca</city>
					<state>Morelos</state>
					<postal-code>62209</postal-code>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Fitopatología, Colegio de Postgraduados-Campus Montecillo, Km 36.5 Carretera México-Texcoco, Texcoco, Estado de México, México. 56230;, </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Colegio de Postgraduados</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Colegio de Postgraduados</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<city>Texcoco</city>
					<state>Estado de México</state>
					<postal-code>56230</postal-code>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>3</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidad Tecnológica de la Selva. Entronque Toniná Km. 0.5 Carretera Ocosingo-Altamirano, Ocosingo, Chiapas, México. C.P. 29950; </institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidad Tecnológica de la Selva</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Tecnológica de la Selva</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<city>Ocosingo</city>
					<state>Chiapas</state>
					<postal-code>29950</postal-code>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4">
				<label>4</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Centro Nacional de Investigación Disciplinaria en Salud Animal e Inocuidad, INIFAP, Km 11 Carretera Federal Cuernavaca-Cuautla, No. 8534, Col. Progreso, Morelos, Jiutepec, México. C.P. 62574.</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Centro Nacional de Investigación Disciplinaria en Salud Animal e Inocuidad</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Centro Nacional de Investigación Disciplinaria en Salud Animal e Inocuidad</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<city>Morelos</city>
					<state>Jiutepec</state>
					<postal-code>62574</postal-code>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1">
					<label><italic>*</italic></label><bold>
 <italic>Autor de correspondencia:</italic> 
</bold> Liliana Aguilar-Marcelino <email>aguilar.liliana@inifap.gob.mx</email>
				</corresp>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>25</day>
				<month>05</month>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<season>May-Aug</season>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>43</volume>
			<issue>2</issue>
			<elocation-id>RMEXFIT24072</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>27</day>
					<month>07</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>03</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2025</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
					<license-p>Este es un artículo publicado en acceso abierto bajo una licencia Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumen</title>
				<p> </p>
				<sec>
					<title>Antecedentes/Objetivo. </title>
					<p>El chile (<italic>Capsicum annuum</italic>) es uno de los cultivos agrícolas más importantes en México. Por lo que los objetivos fueron determinar el efecto <italic>in vitro</italic> del sustrato degradado del hongo comestible <italic>P. ostreatus</italic> cepa HEMIM-50 (SDPO) contra <italic>N. aberrans</italic> y evaluar la efectividad <italic>in situ</italic> del SDPO contra <italic>N. aberrans</italic> en plantas de chile<italic>.</italic></p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Material y Métodos. </title>
					<p>Para las pruebas <italic>in vitro</italic>, se utilizaron seis concentraciones seriadas del extracto hidroalcohólico (SDPO) de 0.62 a 20 mg mL<sup>-1</sup> contra juveniles de <italic>N. aberrans</italic>. Se realizó un ANOVA, seguido de una comparación de medias con Tukey (p&lt;0.05), ajustado con Schiller-Orelli. Para el ensayo <italic>in situ</italic> con plantas de chile se evaluaron tres tratamientos: control (Peat moss), nematicida (Peat moss + Fluopiram) y SDPO (Peat moss 80% + SDPO 20%) y se midieron agallas, masas de huevos y huevos por gramo de raíz a los 45 días. Los datos fueron analizados con las pruebas de GLM y LSD para comparar las medias de cada tratamiento. Todos los análisis estadísticos se analizaron en el programa Statistical Analysis System SAS 9.0.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Resultados. </title>
					<p>El mayor porcentaje de mortalidad se obtuvo con 20 mg mL<sup>-1</sup> del SDPO con un 98 % de mortalidad y no tuvo diferencia significativa respecto al control positivo con Fluopiram (p&lt;0.05), seguida de un 88.3 % de mortalidad con tratamiento a 10 mg mL<sup>-1</sup>. En la evaluación <italic>in situ</italic> en una combinación de Peat moss 80% + SDPO 20% se presentó una disminución del 82 % número de agallas, un 99 % en la masa de huevos y un 98 % en el número de huevos de <italic>N. aberrans</italic> respecto al control con Peat moss. No hubo diferencias significativas (0.0<sup>b</sup>) con la combinación Peat moss + nematicida comercial Fluopiram (Tukey, p&lt;0.05).</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Conclusión</title>
					<p>. El sustrato degradado por <italic>P. ostreatus</italic> (SDPO) tuvo actividad nematicida (98 %) <italic>in vitro</italic> contra nematodos juveniles de <italic>N. aberrans,</italic> además el insumo donde el hongo fue crecido, presentó una disminución de agallas del 82% y un 98% de masas de huevos <italic>in situ</italic> de <italic>N. aberrans</italic> que infectaron el cultivo de chile.</p>
				</sec>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
				<title>Palabras Clave:</title>
				<kwd>Biocontrol</kwd>
				<kwd>Sustrato degradado</kwd>
				<kwd>Fitonematodos</kwd>
				<kwd>Hongos comestibles</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="0"/>
				<table-count count="4"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="38"/>
				<page-count count="0"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introducción</title>
			<p>El nematodo falso agallador (<italic>Nacobbus aberrans</italic>) es uno de los 10 principales fitoparásitos de mayor importancia económica por tener un amplio rango de hospedantes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Jones <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>). Los principales cultivos que afecta son: papa (<italic>Solanum tuberosum</italic>), jitomate (<italic>Solanum lycopersicum</italic>), remolacha (<italic>Beta vulgaris</italic>), chile (<italic>Capsicum annuum</italic>), frijol (<italic>Phaseolus vulgaris</italic>), pepino (<italic>Cucumis sativus</italic>) y berenjena (<italic>Solanum melongena</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Manzanilla-López <italic>et al</italic>., 2002</xref>). Las pérdidas que genera en producción varían de acuerdo con el hospedante: 35 % en frijol, de 50-90 % en jitomate, 80 % en papa; en el cultivo de chile las estadísticas de pérdidas económicas en México no están registradas (Toledo <italic>et al</italic>., 1992; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Cristóbal-Alejo <italic>et al</italic>., 2006</xref>). El chile es un cultivo fundamental en la agricultura mexicana, no solo por su alto valor comercial, sino también por su impacto en la alimentación y cultura del país. En 2020, México se posicionó como el segundo productor mundial de chiles, con una cosecha de 3,324,260 toneladas, lo que representó un incremento del 2.7 % respecto al año anterior (SADER, 2021). El uso de <italic>C. annuum</italic> como planta modelo para el estudio de <italic>N. aberrans</italic> es de gran importancia debido a su susceptibilidad a este fitoparásito y su relevancia económica en México. En diversas zonas productoras, la presencia de este nematodo puede representar una amenaza significativa para los rendimientos, lo que hace imprescindible el desarrollo de estrategias efectivas para su control y manejo.</p>
			<p>Una alternativa para el biocontrol de los nematodos es el uso de hongos comestibles (HC) con actividad nematicida. Al respecto, según <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Li y Zhang (2014</xref>), existen 280 especies pertenecientes a 150 géneros que presentan actividad nematicida particularmente contra nematodos de importancia agrícola como <italic>Meloidogyne incognita</italic> y <italic>N. aberrans</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Rodríguez-Barrera <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). La actividad nematicida presente en los HC está relacionada con compuestos como proteasas (aspartil proteasas), ácidos grasos (ácido pentadecanoico, ácido palmítico, β-sitosterol, ácido esteárico y ácido linoleico), y metabolitos secundarios como alcaloides, sesquiterpenoides, y otros compuestos fenólicos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Beltrán-Delgado <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Carrillo-Lara <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Pineda-Alegría <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>).</p>
			<p>En el proceso de producción del HC <italic>Pleurotus ostreatus</italic> se encuentra el subproducto denominado sustrato degradado (SDPO), término empleado en este trabajo para referirse al subproducto orgánico generado por <italic>P. ostreatus</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">De León-Monzón <italic>et al</italic>., 2004</xref>). La biomasa lignocelulósica formada en el cultivo de HC está compuesta principalmente por lignina (5-35 %), celulosa (9-80 %) y hemicelulosa (10-50 %), y su biodegradabilidad está altamente influenciada por los insumos que lo componen (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Aguilar-Marcelino <italic>et al</italic>., 2024</xref>). Independientemente del sustrato, se ha reportado que el SDPO contiene compuestos tóxicos contra nematodos de importancia agrícola. Diversos autores han observado la capacidad predatoria del micelio de los hongos, observando estructuras capaces de inmovilizar nematodos y posteriormente colonizarlos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Luo <italic>et al</italic>., 2007</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Armas-Tizapantzi <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Esto se ha observado en nematodos de vida libre y en parásitos de plantas como <italic>Heterodera schachtii</italic>, depredado por el hongo <italic>P. sajor-caju</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Palizi <italic>et al</italic>., 2009</xref>).</p>
			<p>En otro contexto, se ha observado la infección de los J2 del nematodo agallador <italic>Meloidogyne javanica</italic> por el micelio del hongo comestible de <italic>Pleurotus</italic>, adicionalmente los filtrados del micelio de estos, presentaron actividad nematicida y nemostático contra <italic>M. javanica</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Hahn <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Dentro de los compuestos presentes en el SDPO con mayor actividad nematicida se encuentran los ésteres de ácidos grasos asociados al micelio (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Chegwin y Nieto, 2013</xref>), compuestos fenólicos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Aslam y Saifullah, 2013</xref>), toxinas (ácido trans -2- decenodioico) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Abbasi <italic>et al</italic>., 2014</xref>), y enzimas (proteasas) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">De Freitas-Soares <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Asimismo, se ha observado que el SDPO tiene propiedades antagónicas contra hongos fitopatógenos, tal es el caso de la efectividad supresiva del SDPO sobre la inhibición del crecimiento de <italic>Fusarium oxysporum</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Yusidah y Istifadah, 2018</xref>). De igual manera, el extracto acuoso del sustrato degradado de <italic>Lyophyllum decastes</italic> fue efectivo en el control de la antracnosis inducida por <italic>Colletotrichum orbiculare</italic> en el cultivo de pepino (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Parada <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>). Por otro lado, se estimó la activación de mecanismos de defensa en plantas de chile infectadas con <italic>Phytophthora capsici</italic> cuando se confrontaron con extractos acuosos del hongo <italic>Lentinula edodes</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Kang <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>). Por lo que, la presente investigación tiene como objetivo determinar el efecto <italic>in vitro</italic> del extracto hidroalcohólico SDPO contra larvas de <italic>N. aberrans</italic>, y evaluar la efectividad <italic>in situ</italic> en plantas de chile (<italic>C. annuum</italic>) como alternativa para el biocontrol del nematodo falso agallador <italic>N. aberrans</italic>.</p>
			<p>La cepa del hongo <italic>P. ostreatus</italic> (HEMIM-50), fue proporcionada por el Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas de la Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos (CIB- UAEM). Se obtuvo el inóculo en semilla de trigo pasteurizada e inoculada con fragmentos de micelio, se creció por 21 días a 27 °C, un fotoperíodo de 12:12 h de luz:oscuridad, 80- 90 % de humedad relativa y ventilación forzada. La paja de trigo (<italic>Triticum aestivum</italic>) en donde creció el hongo se pasteurizó, inicialmente el agua (133 L) se calentó (75-80 °C), se le agregó 1 kg de cal y 500 g de yeso hasta disolverlos, se sumergió la paja por una hora. Una vez realizada la pasteurización, se drenó el exceso de humedad del substrato. La paja pasteurizada e hidratada (70%) se colocó en bolsas de plástico junto con la semilla, donde se intercaló capas de substrato y semilla invadida con micelio y se incubó (25 °C) por 20 días en oscuridad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Sánchez, 2010</xref>).</p>
			<p>Después de obtener los cuerpos fructíferos, el SDPO se deshidrató en obscuridad suministrando corrientes de aire hasta obtener un peso constante, el SDPO se almacenó en bolsas estériles en refrigeración (4 °C) hasta su uso, para evitar contaminación de microorganismos que afecten las propiedades fisicoquímicas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Postemsky y López-Castro, 2016</xref>). Para obtener los extractos hidroalcohólicos (70 %), se añadió alcohol (1:3 g/v) al SDPO y se dejó macerar durante 24 h a 25 °C. Posteriormente se filtró, se concentró utilizando un rotaevaporador y se liofilizó para su secado, finalmente se almacenó a 4 °C hasta su uso (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Pineda-Alegría <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>).</p>
			<p>El inóculo de <italic>N. aberrans</italic> se obtuvo de una población pura con raíces agalladas de jitomate (<italic>Solanum lycopersicum</italic>), la cuales se recolectaron en el Colegio de Postgraduados, Campus Montecillo, Estado de México, México. Se obtuvieron huevos utilizando el método descrito por Babaali <italic>et al</italic>. (2107). Los huevos frescos se incubaron a 27 °C por ocho días en placas de Petri con agua destilada estéril, hasta la eclosión y obtención de juveniles del segundo estadio (J2) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Vázquez-Sánchez <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>).</p>
			<p>Las semillas de chile var. California Wonder susceptible a <italic>N. aberrans</italic> se desinfectaron con hipoclorito de sodio al 1% por 1 min, se enjuagaron, se secaron y colocaron en placas de Petri sobre toallas de papel humedecidas con agua estéril y se germinaron a 27 °C. Cuando las plántulas tuvieron 60 días de edad en las placas de Petri, se trasplantaron en macetas de 1 kg que contenían los tratamientos a evaluar <italic>in situ</italic> y se dejó transcurrir 30 días antes de establecer el experimento. Se mantuvieron en condiciones de invernadero con riego diario hasta que desarrollaron tres pares de hojas verdaderas (siete semanas de edad). A los 30 días después del trasplante cada plántula de chile se inoculó con 2 mL de agua conteniendo 2000 J2 en la base del tallo con una jeringa hipodérmica y se mantuvo un riego moderado para garantizar la humedad (Chavarro- Carrero <italic>et al</italic>., 2017).</p>
			<p>Para la evaluación <italic>in situ</italic> se utilizaron macetas de 1 L de capacidad con 10 repeticiones con cada uno de los siguientes tratamientos: T1= control (Peat moss), T2= Nematicida (Peat moss + Fluopiram) y T3= SDPO (Peat moss 80% + SDPO 20%). Las variables evaluadas fueron: número de agallas, masas de huevos y huevos por gramo de raíz a los 45 días después de la inoculación (ddi). El número de agallas se obtuvo con la ayuda de una lupa. Para tener el número de masas de huevos, los huevos se sumergieron en una solución de Floxina B (0.15 g L<sup>-1</sup> de agua) por 20 min, para que las masas de huevos se tiñeran de rojo y se facilitara el conteo, después se retiró el colorante y con ayuda de una lupa se realizó el conteo. Para el determinar el número de huevos por gramo de raíz se siguió el método descrito por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Vrain (1977</xref>). El conteo consistió en colocar alícuotas de 10 µL con 10 repeticiones por muestra y observarlas en el microscopio, posteriormente se dividió el número total de masas de huevos entre el peso de las raíces en gramos. Los resultados se expresaron en número de huevos por gramo de raíz (número de huevos g raíz<sup>-1</sup>). El ensayo se realizó bajo un diseño completamente al azar con siete repeticiones por tratamiento y un total de 21 unidades experimentales.</p>
			<p>Para las pruebas <italic>in vitro</italic> se utilizaron placas de microtitulación de 96 pocillos, donde se colocaron seis diluciones del extracto hidroalcohólico de SDPO en concentraciones seriadas de 0.6, 1.2, 2.5, 5 y 20 mg mL<sup>-1</sup> en 100 µL finales con 50 nematodos (J2) de <italic>N. aberrans</italic>. Se incluyó un control negativo PBS (Tampón Fosfato Salino, pH 7.4) y un control positivo nematicida comercial (Verango Prime®) (50 mg mL<sup>-1</sup> Fluopiram). El bioensayo se realizó por duplicado bajo un arreglo complemente al azar con cuatro repeticiones por cada tratamiento. Las placas se cubrieron con papel aluminio y se incubaron a 27 °C. Finalmente, tras 72 h post confrontación se realizaron las lecturas de mortalidad de acuerdo al método descrito por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Pineda-Alegría <italic>et al</italic>. (2017</xref>).</p>
			<p>Análisis estadístico. Todos los datos experimentales fueron analizados bajo un diseño completamente al azar. En las pruebas <italic>in vitro</italic> se realizó un ANOVA, seguido de una comparación de medias con la prueba de Tukey (p&lt;0.05), ajustado con Schiller-Orelli. Para el ensayo <italic>in situ</italic> se homogenizó las varianzas, los datos se transformaron por raíz cuadrada (x+1), y fueron analizados con el procedimiento del Modelo Lineal General (GLM) y la prueba Mínima Diferencia Significativa (LSD) de Fisher para comparar las medias de cada tratamiento. Todos los análisis se realizaron en el programa estadístico Statistical Analysis System SAS 9.0.</p>
			<p>El mayor porcentaje de mortalidad de J2, se obtuvo con el T6 (20 mg mL<sup>-1</sup>) con un 98 % de mortalidad y no tuvo diferencia significativa respecto al control positivo Fluopiram (99.3 %), seguido del T5 que provocó un 88.3 % de mortalidad. En las concentraciones de 0.6, 1.2 y 2.5 mg mL<sup>-1</sup> presentaron bajo porcentaje de mortalidad y no hubo diferencias significativas entre sus medias y el control con PBS (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Cuadro 1</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t1">
					<label>Cuadro 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Mortalidad de <italic>N. aberrans</italic> (J2) en presencia del extracto del sustrato degradado de <italic>P. ostreatus</italic> (SDPO) a 72 h post confrontación.</title>
					</caption>
					<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Tratamientos</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Concentración (mg mL-1)</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Mortalidad ajustada (%) ± SD *</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td>T1</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">0.6</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">2.8 ± 3.3 cd</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>T2</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">1.2</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">4.6 ± 5.0 cd</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>T3</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">2.5</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">5.0 ± 4.4 cd</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>T4</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">5.0</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">12.0 ± 10.9 c</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>T5</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">10</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">88.3 ± 5.1 b</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>T6</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">20</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">98.0 ± 2.3 a</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Fluopiram (control positivo)</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">50</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">99.3 ± 1.4 a</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>Control PBS (control negativo)</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">1x</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">0.9 ± 1.3 d</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN1">
							<p>SD=Desviación estándar. * medias con letras diferentes son estadísticamente significantes (Tukey, *<italic>p</italic>&lt;0.05), ajustado con Schiller-Orelli.</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>En las evaluaciones <italic>in vitro</italic> de mortalidad realizadas en el presente estudio se logró disminuir la población de <italic>N. aberrans</italic> hasta un 98 % con el extracto del SDPO con 20 mg mL<sup>-1</sup>, lo que sugirió que la mortalidad, está relacionada con el incremento de concentración. Este efecto podría atribuirse a la presencia de metabolitos secundarios en el extracto, los cuales han sido ampliamente notificados por su actividad nematicida. Metabolitos secundarios como: 1) fenoles, 2) flavonoides, 3) saponinas y 4) terpenoides podrían estar involucrados en la despolarización de la membrana celular de los nematodos parásitos, afectando su homeostasis y causando su muerte. Por ejemplo, se ha notificado que los fenoles pueden inducir daño en las membranas celulares y alterar la actividad enzimática (peroxidasas, proteasas de cisteína o quitinasas) esenciales para la supervivencia de los nematodos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Chitwood, 2002</xref>). Los flavonoides han demostrado ser tóxicos para diversos nematodos al interferir con procesos bioquímicos fundamentales, como la inhibición de enzimas antioxidantes, lo que provoca estrés oxidativo (especies reactivas de oxígeno) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Chin <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>). Las saponinas han sido identificadas como disruptores de la permeabilidad celular, promoviendo la lisis de membranas y alterando el metabolismo energético de los nematodos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Francis <italic>et al</italic>., 2002</xref>). Por su parte, los terpenoides han mostrado actividad nematicida a través de la inhibición de la motilidad e inducción de parálisis, probablemente por su interacción con receptores neuronales y canales iónicos en la membrana celular (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Ntalli y Caboni, 2012</xref>). Además, los resultados <italic>in vitro</italic> del presente estudio fueron superiores a lo reportados por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Hahn <italic>et al</italic>. (2019</xref>), con extractos acuosos de <italic>P. djamor</italic> y <italic>P. erygii</italic> donde lograron una mortalidad del 78 y 90 % en J2 de <italic>M. incognita</italic>. También, se ha notificado una CL50 de 2.7 mg mL<sup>-1</sup> (2.64-2.82) cuando se confrontó larvas J2 de <italic>N. aberrans</italic> contra extractos hidroalcohólicos de un sustrato degradado por <italic>P. ostreatus</italic> conformado por pulpa de café (<italic>Coffea canephora</italic>), pasto pangola (<italic>Digitaria eriantha</italic>) y olote de maíz (<italic>Zea mays</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Cruz-Arévalo <italic>et al</italic>., 2024</xref>).</p>
			<p>En la evaluación <italic>in situ</italic> del presente trabajo con el SDPO contra <italic>N. aberrans</italic>, se encontró que el tratamiento T3 de Peat moss 80 % + SDPO 20 % (v/v) es satisfactorio, ya que el número de agallas que se formaron en el sistema radicular de las plantas de chile a los 45 ddi, se redujo significativamente en 82 %, las masas de huevos disminuyó un 99 y un 98 % el número de huevos, con respecto al tratamiento T1 (Peat moss), y no tuvo diferencias significativas en comparación con el tratamiento T2 (Peat moss + Fluopiram) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Cuadro 2</xref>). Estos resultados son similares utilizando diferentes porcentajes de SDPO (30, 50 y 70 %), para el control de <italic>Meloidogyne</italic> spp. en macetas en condiciones de invernadero donde se logró reducir de forma significativa hasta un 70 % la población de nematodos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Abbasi <italic>et al</italic>., 2014</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t2">
					<label>Cuadro 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Efecto <italic>in situ</italic> del sustrato degradado de <italic>P. ostreatus</italic> contra <italic>N. aberrans</italic> a los 45 días de la inoculación en plantas de chile.</title>
					</caption>
					<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Tratamientos</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Composición de tratamientos</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Agallas g raíz-1 z</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Masa de huevos g raíz-1 z</th>
								<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Huevos g raíz-1 z</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td>T1</td>
								<td>Peat moss</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">3.5 a</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">4.0 a</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">390 a</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>T2</td>
								<td>Peat moss + Fluopiram</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">0.0 b</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">0.0 b</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">0.0 b</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td>T3</td>
								<td>Peat moss 80% + SDPO 20%</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">0.6 b</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">0.3 b</td>
								<td style="text-align:left">6.0 b</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN2">
							<p>zPromedios con misma letra indican que no hay diferencia significativa (Tukey, *= <italic>p</italic>&lt;0.05).</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>Con la utilización de SDPO cultivado en salvado de trigo y arroz al aplicar 1200 g m<sup>2 -1</sup>, disminuyeron de 86.2 a 80.2 % el número de agallas y masas de huevos de <italic>M. incognita</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Mostafa <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Otros reportes han evidenciado que la actividad nematicida del SDPO contra <italic>N. aberrans</italic> logra una reducción significativa al aplicar una dosis de 10, 20 y 30 g mL<sup>-1</sup> en macetas en invernadero con 1 kg de suelo franco arenoso esterilizado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Aslam y Saifullah, 2013</xref>). Adicionalmente, en evaluaciones <italic>in vitro</italic> reportaron que con una concentración de 10.7 μg mg<sup>-1</sup> de SDPO fue efectiva para reducir la eclosión de huevos y eliminar juveniles de nematodos agalladores.</p>
			<p>Por otro lado, se han realizado investigaciones sobre el uso de diferentes sustratos agrícolas para el cultivo de <italic>P. ostreatus</italic>, lo que podría influir en la actividad nematicida del sustrato degradado. Por ejemplo, un estudio evaluó la capacidad productiva de <italic>P. ostreatus</italic> utilizando alfalfa (<italic>Medicago sativa</italic>) deshidratada como suplemento en diferentes sustratos agrícolas, encontrando que la suplementación con alfalfa incrementó la eficiencia biológica y la tasa de biodegradación de los sustratos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Romero <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>). Otro estudio evaluó la producción de <italic>P. ostreatus</italic> en diferentes sustratos agroresiduales, como paja de cebada (<italic>Hordeum vulgare</italic>), hoja de plátano (<italic>Musa paradisiaca</italic>) y forraje de maíz (<italic>Zea mays</italic>), y encontró que la mezcla de estos sustratos puede influir en la producción del hongo comestible y, potencialmente, en las propiedades del sustrato degradado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Vázquez-Vázquez <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). Aunque estos estudios no abordan un estudio sobre la actividad nematicida del sustrato degradado de <italic>P. ostreatus</italic> contra <italic>N. aberrans</italic>, es importante la búsqueda de insumos naturales efectivos con el fin de reducir el uso de nematicidas comerciales. Este paso es vital para una producción agrícola sostenible; sin embargo, es esencial conocer cómo actúan los metabolitos activos presentes y analizar su eficacia en condiciones reales de campo.</p>
			<p>Los resultados de la presente investigación permiten concluir que el SDPO posee actividad nematicida del 98 % de mortalidad <italic>in vitro</italic> contra juveniles de segundo estadio</p>
			<p><italic>N. aberrans</italic>. Además, en el ensayo <italic>in situ</italic> el mejor tratamiento fue la combinación de Peat moss 80 % + SDPO 20 %, ya que se logró disminuir un 82 % el número de agallas y un 98 % el número de masas de huevos de <italic>N. aberrans</italic>. Cabe resaltar que la paja de trigo donde el hongo fue crecido es un insumo económico y el residuo puede ser aprovechado como fuente de metabolitos secundarios para el control de nematodos agalladores, por lo que los resultados respaldan el potencial del SDPO como una herramienta sustentable y sostenible para el manejo de <italic>N. aberrans</italic> que afectan el cultivo de chile en México, ofreciendo alternativas naturales de control.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
		<ack>
			<title>Agradecimientos</title>
			<p> </p>
			<p>El presente estudio fue financiado por la Secretaría de Ciencia, Humanidades, Tecnología e Innovación (SECIHTI) de México. Proyecto con número de registro CBF2023-2024-387.</p>
		</ack>
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	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="en">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Phytopathological Note</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Spent substrate of <italic>Pleurotus ostreatus</italic> as a nematicide of <italic>Nacobbus aberrans</italic> in chili pepper (<italic>Capsicum annuum</italic>) plants</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p> </p>
				<sec>
					<title>Background/Objetive. </title>
					<p>The chili pepper (<italic>Capsicum annuum</italic>) is one of the most important agricultural crops in Mexico. Due to this, the aims were to determine the <italic>in vitro</italic> effect of the spent substrate by the edible fungus <italic>P. ostreatus</italic>, strain HEMIM-50, (SSPO) against <italic>N. aberrans</italic> and evaluate the <italic>in situ</italic> effectiveness of the SSPO against <italic>N. aberrans</italic> in chili pepper plants<italic>.</italic></p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Material and methods. </title>
					<p>For the <italic>in vitro</italic> test, six serial concentrations of the hydroalcoholic extract (SSPO), ranging from 0.62 to 20 mg mL<sup>-1</sup> against <italic>N. aberrans</italic> juveniles. An ANOVA was carried out, followed by Tukey’s means comparison test (p&lt;0.05), adjusted with Schiller-Orelli. For the <italic>in situ</italic> assay with chili pepper plants, three treatments were evaluated: control (Peat moss), nematicide (Peat moss + Fluopiram) and SSPO (Peat moss 80% + SSPO 20%) and galls, egg masses and eggs per gram of root were measured after 45 days. The data were analyzed using the GLM and LSD tests to compare the means of each treatment. All statistical analyses were analyzed in the Statistical Analysis System program, SAS 9.0.</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Results. </title>
					<p>The highest percentage of mortality was obtained with 20 mg mL<sup>-1</sup> of the SSPO with a mortality of 98% of mortality and had no significant difference with the positive control with Fluopiram (p&lt;0.05), followed by a mortality of 88.3% with the treatment at 10 mg mL<sup>-1</sup>. In the <italic>in situ</italic> evaluation in a combination of Peat moss 80% + SSPO 20%, a reduction of 82% in the number of galls was observed, along with 99% in the mass of eggs and 98% in the number of <italic>N. aberrans</italic> in comparison with the control with Peat moss. There were no significant differences (0.0<sup>b</sup>) with the combination of Peat moss + Fluopiram commercial nematicide (Tukey, p&lt;0.05).</p>
					<p> </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Conclusion</title>
					<p>. The spent substrate by <italic>P. ostreatus</italic> (SSPO) had an <italic>in vitro</italic> nematocidal activity (98%) against juvenile <italic>N. aberrans</italic> nematodes; in addition, the input in which the fungus was planted presented a reduction in galls of 82% and 98% for <italic>in situ N. aberrans</italic> egg mass that infected the chili pepper crop.</p>
				</sec>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>Biocontrol</kwd>
				<kwd>Spent substrate</kwd>
				<kwd>Phytonematodes</kwd>
				<kwd>Edible fungi</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introduction</title>
				<p>The false root-knot nematode (<italic>Nacobbus aberrans</italic>) is one of the 10 main phytoparasites with the greatest economic importance due to its wide range of hosts (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Jones <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>). The main crops it affects are the potato (<italic>Solanum tuberosum</italic>), tomato (<italic>Solanum lycopersicum</italic>), beet (<italic>Beta vulgaris</italic>), chili pepper (<italic>Capsicum annuum</italic>), bean (<italic>Phaseolus vulgaris</italic>), cucumber (<italic>Cucumis sativus</italic>) and eggplant (<italic>Solanum melongena</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Manzanilla-López <italic>et al</italic>., 2002</xref>). The losses it generates vary according to the host: 35% in bean, between 50 and 90% in tomato, 80% in potato, and in the chili pepper crop, the economic losses in Mexico are not recorded (Toledo <italic>et al</italic>., 1992; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Cristóbal-Alejo <italic>et al</italic>., 2006</xref>). The chili pepper is a crucial crop in Mexican agriculture, not only for its high commercial value, but also for its impact on the diet and culture of the country. In 2020, Mexico was positioned as the world’s second largest producer of chili pepper, with a harvest of 3,324,260 tons, increasing by 2.7% from the previous year (SADER, 2021). The use of <italic>C. annuum</italic> as a model plant for the study of <italic>N. aberrans</italic> is of great importance, due to the susceptibility of this phytoparasite and its economic relevance in Mexico. In diverse producing areas, the presence of this nematode can be a significant threat for yields, making it crucial to develop effective strategies for its control and handling crucial. An alternative for the biocontrol of the nematodes is the use of edible fungi (EF) with nematocidal activity. In this regard, according to <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Li and Zhang (2014</xref>), there are 280 species belonging to 150 genera that display nematocidal activity, particularly against nematodes of agricultural importance, such as <italic>Meloidogyne incognita</italic> and <italic>N. aberrans</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Rodríguez-Barrera <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). The nematocidal activity found in the EF is related to compounds such as proteases (aspartic proteases), fatty acids (pentadecanoic acid, palmitic acid, β-sitosterol, stearic acid and linoleic acid), and secondary metabolites such as alkaloids, sesquiterpenoids, as well as other phenolic compounds (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Beltrán-Delgado <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Carrillo-Lara <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Pineda-Alegría <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>).</p>
				<p>In the process of production of the EF <italic>Pleurotus ostreatus</italic>, there is a subproduct called a spent substrate (SSPO), a term used in this study to refer to the organic subproduct generated by <italic>P. ostreatus</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">De León-Monzón <italic>et al</italic>., 2004</xref>). The lignocellulosic biomass formed in the EF crop is composed mainly of lignin (5-35%), cellulose (9-80%) and hemicellulose (10-50%), and its biodegradability is highly influenced by the inputs that it is made up of (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Aguilar-Marcelino <italic>et al</italic>., 2024</xref>). Regardless of the substrate, SSPO has been reported to contain toxic compounds against nematodes of agricultural importance. Diverse authors have observed the predatory ability of the fungal mycelia, observing structures able to immobilize nematodes and later colonize them (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Luo <italic>et al</italic>., 2007</xref>; Armas- Tizapantzi <italic>et al</italic>., 2019). This has been observed in free-living nematodes and in parasites of plants such as <italic>Heterodera schachtii</italic>, predated by the fungus <italic>P. sajor-caju</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Palizi <italic>et al</italic>., 2009</xref>).</p>
				<p>In another context, the infection of the J2 of the root-knot nematode <italic>Meloidogyne javanica</italic> by the mycelium of the edible fungus of <italic>Pleurotus</italic> has been observed; in addition, their mycelia displayed nematocidal and nemostatic activity against <italic>M. javanica</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Hahn <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Among the compounds found in the SSPO with the greatest nematocidal activity are the esters of fatty acids related to the mycelia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Chegwin and Nieto, 2013</xref>), phenolic compounds (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Aslam and Saifullah, 2013</xref>), toxins (trans-2- decenodioic acid) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Abbasi <italic>et al</italic>., 2014</xref>), and enzymes (proteases) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">De Freitas-Soares <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Likewise, SSPO has been observed to have antagonistic activity against phytopathogens. Such is the case of the suppressive effectiveness of SSPO on the inhibition of the growth of <italic>Fusarium oxysporum</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Yusidah and Istifadah, 2018</xref>). Moreover, the aqueous extract of the spent substrate by <italic>Lyophyllum decastes</italic> was effective in the control of the anthracnose induced by <italic>Colletotrichum orbiculare</italic> in the cucumber crop (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Parada <italic>et al</italic>., 2011</xref>). On the other hand, the activation of defense mechanisms in chili pepper plants infected with <italic>Phytophthora capsici</italic> was estimated when these were confronted with aqueous extracts of the fungus <italic>Lentinula edodes</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Kang <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>). Therefore, the aim of this investigation was to determine the <italic>in vitro</italic> effect of the SSPO hydroalcoholic extract against <italic>N. aberrans</italic> larvae, as well as to evaluate the <italic>in situ</italic> effectiveness in chili pepper (<italic>C. annuum</italic>) plants as an alternative for the biocontrol of the of the false root-know nematode <italic>N. aberrans</italic>.</p>
				<p>The strain of the fungus <italic>P. ostreatus</italic> (HEMIM-50) was provided by the Biological Research Center of the Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos (CIB-UAEM). The inoculant was obtained from a pasteurized wheat seed and inoculated with mycelium fragments, grown for 21 days at 27 °C, a photoperiod of 12:12 h of light:darkness, 80- 90% of relative humidity and forced ventilation. Wheat (<italic>Triticum aestivum</italic>) straw, where the fungus had grown, was pasteurized. Initially, water (133 L) was heated (75-80 °C), 1 kg of lime and 500 g of gypsum were added until they dissolved and the straw was submerged for one hour. Once pasteurization was complete, the excess moisture was drained from the substrate. The pasteurized and hydrated straw (70%) was placed in plastic bags along with the seed, where layers of substrate and seed colonized with mycelium were alternated, and incubated (25 ºC) for 20 days in the dark (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Sánchez, 2010</xref>).</p>
				<p>After obtaining the fruiting bodies, the SSPO was dehydrated in the dark, supplying air currents until a constant weight was reached. The SSPO was stored in sterile bags in refrigeration (4 ºC) until use to avoid contamination by microorganisms that could affect the physical and chemical properties (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Postemsky and López-Castro, 2016</xref>). To obtain the hydroalcoholic extracts (70%), alcohol was added (1:3 g/v) to the SSPO and left to macerate for 24 h at 25 ºC. It was subsequently filtered and concentrated using a rotaevaporator, then lyophilized to dry and stored at 4 °C until use (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Pineda-Alegría <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>).</p>
				<p>The <italic>N. aberrans</italic> inoculant was obtained from a pure population with galled tomato (<italic>Solanum lycopersicum</italic>) roots, which were collected in the Colegio de Postgraduados, Montecillo Campus, State of Mexico, Mexico. Eggs were obtained using the method described by Babaali <italic>et al</italic>. (2107). The fresh eggs were incubated at 27 °C for eight days in Petri dishes with sterile distilled water until hatching and juveniles were obtained in the second stage (J2) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Vázquez-Sánchez <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>).</p>
				<p>The seeds from chili pepper var. California Wonder, susceptible to <italic>N. aberrans</italic>, were desinfested with sodium hypochlorite at 1% for 1 min, then rinsed, dried and placed in Petri dishes on paper towels, dampened with sterile water, and germinated at 27 °C. after the seedlings had remained on the Petri dishes for 60 days, they were transplanted into 1kg pots containing the treatments to be evaluated <italic>in situ</italic> and left for 30 days before establishing the experiment. They were kept under greenhouse conditions and irrigated on a daily basis until three pairs of true leaves developed (seven weeks of age). Thirty days after the transplant of each chili pepper plant, they were inoculated with 2 mL of water containing 2000 J2 on the base of the stem with a hypodermic syringe and a moderate irrigation was maintained to guarantee moisture (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Chavarro-Carrero <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>).</p>
				<p>For the <italic>in situ</italic> evaluation, 1 L pots with a capacity for 10 repetitions were used with each one of the following treatments: T1= control (Peat moss), T2= Nematicide (Peat moss + Fluopiram) and T3= SSPO (Peat moss 80% + SSPO 20%). The variables evaluated were: number of galls, masses of eggs and eggs per gram of root 45 days after inoculation (dai). The number of galls was obtained using a magnifying glass. In order to obtain the number of egg masses, the eggs were submerged in a Floxina B solution (0.15 g L<sup>-1</sup> of water) for 20 min so the egg masses would become stained red and counting them became easier. The dye was removed and counting and they were counted using a magnifying glass. To determine the number of eggs per gram, the method described by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Vrain (1977</xref>) was used. The count consisted of placing 10 µL aliquots with 10 repetitions per sample observing them under the microscope. Subsequently, the total number of egg masses was divided by the weight of the root in grams. The results were expressed as the number of eggs per gram of root (number of eggs g root<sup>-1</sup>). The assay was carried out under a completely randomized design with seven replicates per treatment and a total of 21 experimental units.</p>
				<p>For the <italic>in vitro</italic> tests, 96-well microtiter plats were used, in which six serial dilutions of the hydroalcoholic extract of SSPO were placed at concentrations of 0.6, 1.2, 2.5, 5 and 20 mg mL<sup>-1</sup> in a final volume of 100 µL, each containing 50 <italic>N. aberrans</italic> nematodes (J2). A negative control using PBS (Phosphate-Buffered Saline, pH 7.4) and a positive control using a commercial positive nematicide (Verango Prime®) (50 mg mL<sup>-1</sup> Fluopiram) were included. The bioassay was performed in duplicate using a completely randomized design with four replicates per treatment. The plates were covered with aluminum foil and incubated at 27 °C. Finally, mortality readings were taken 72 hours post-confrontation following the method described by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Pineda-Alegría <italic>et al</italic>. (2017</xref>).</p>
				<p>Statistical analysis. All experimental data were analyzed under a completely randomized design. In the <italic>in vitro</italic> tests an ANOVA was performed, followed by a means comparison with Tukey’s test (p&lt;0.05), adjusted with Schiller-Orelli. For the <italic>in situ</italic> assay, variances were homogenized, the data transformed by square root (x+1), and analyzed with the General Linear Model (GLM) procedure and Fisher’s Least Significant Difference (LSD) to compare the means of each treatment. All analyses were carried out in the Statistical Analysis System program SAS 9.0.</p>
				<p>The greatest percentage of mortality of J2 was obtained with the T6 (20 mg mL<sup>-1</sup>) with a mortality of 98% and had no significant difference with the positive control Fluopiram (99.3%), followed by T5, which caused an 88.3% mortality. In the concentrations of 0.6,</p>
				<p>1.2 and 2.5 mg mL<sup>-1</sup>, they presented a low percentage of mortality and there were no significant differences between their measurements and the control with PBS (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 1</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t3">
						<label>Table 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Mortality of <italic>N. aberrans</italic> (J2) in presence of the spent substrate <italic>P. ostreatus</italic> (SSPO) at 72 h post confrontation.</title>
						</caption>
						<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Treatments</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Concentration (mg mL-1)</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Adjusted mortality (%) ± SD *</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td>T1</td>
									<td>0.6</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">2.8 ± 3.3 cd</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>T2</td>
									<td>1.2</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">4.6 ± 5.0 cd</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>T3</td>
									<td>2.5</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">5.0 ± 4.4 cd</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>T4</td>
									<td>5.0</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">12.0 ± 10.9 c</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>T5</td>
									<td>10</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">88.3 ± 5.1 b</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>T6</td>
									<td>20</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">98.0 ± 2.3 a</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Fluopiram (positive control)</td>
									<td>50</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">99.3 ± 1.4 a</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>PBS (negative control)</td>
									<td>1x</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">0.9 ± 1.3 d</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN3">
								<p>SD=Standard deviation. * means with different letters are statistically different (Tukey, *<italic>p</italic>&lt;0.05), adjusted with Schiller-Orelli.</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>In the <italic>in vitro</italic> mortality evaluations performed in this study, the <italic>N. aberrans</italic> population was reduced by up to 98% with the SSPO extract with 20 mg mL<sup>-1</sup>, which suggested that mortality is related to the increase in concentration. This effect may be attributed to the presence of secondary metabolites in the extract, which have been broadly notified for their nematocidal activity. Secondary metabolites such as 1) phenols,</p>
				<p>2) flavonoids, 3) saponins and 4) terpenoids may be involved in the depolarization of the cell membrane of the parasitic nematodes, affecting their homeostasis and causing their death. For example, phenols have been notified to induce damage in the cell membranes and alter enzyme activity (peroxidases, cysteine proteases or chitinases), essential for the survival of the nematodes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Chitwood, 2002</xref>). Flavonoids have proven to be toxic to diverse nematodes, as they interfere with crucial biochemical processes, such as the inhibition of antioxidant enzymes, which causes oxidative stress (oxygen reactive species) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Chin <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>). Saponins have been identified as disruptors of cell permeability, promoting the lysis of membranes and altering the energetic metabolism of nematodes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Francis <italic>et al</italic>., 2002</xref>). On the other hand, terpenoids have displayed nematocidal activity through the inhibition of motility and the induction of paralysis, probably due to its interaction with neuronal receptors and ionic channels in the cell membrane (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Ntalli and Caboni, 2012</xref>). In addition, the <italic>in vitro</italic> results of this study were greater than those reported by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Hahn <italic>et al</italic>. (2019</xref>), with aqueous <italic>P. djamor</italic> and <italic>P. erygii</italic> extracts, where they achieved a mortality of 78 and 90 % in <italic>M. incognita</italic> J2. A CL50 of</p>
				<p>2.7 mg mL<sup>-1</sup> (2.64-2.82) has also been notified when <italic>N. aberrans</italic> J2 larvae were confronted with hydroalcoholic extracts of spent substrate by <italic>P. ostreatus</italic> made up of coffee pulp (<italic>Coffea canephora</italic>), pangola grass (<italic>Digitaria eriantha</italic> Steud) and maize cobs (<italic>Zea mays</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Cruz-Arévalo <italic>et al</italic>., 2024</xref>).</p>
				<p>The <italic>in situ</italic> evaluation of this work with SSPO against <italic>N. aberrans</italic> found that treatment T3 with Peat moss 80 % + SSPO 20 % (v/v) is satisfactory, since the number of galls formed in the root system of the chili pepper plants 45 dai decreased significantly by 82%, the masses of eggs decreased by 99%, and the number of eggs did so by 98% in comparison to treatment T1 (Peat moss), and no significant differences were observed in comparison to treatment T2 (Peat moss + Fluopiram) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 2</xref>). These results are similar using different percentages of SSPO (30, 50 and 70%), for the control in <italic>Meloidogyne</italic> spp. In pots in different greenhouse conditions, where the nematode population was reduced significantly by up to 70% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Abbasi <italic>et al</italic>., 2014</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t4">
						<label>Table 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title><italic>In situ</italic> effect of the spent substrate <italic>P. ostreatus</italic> against <italic>N. aberrans</italic> 45 days after inoculation in chili pepper plants.</title>
						</caption>
						<table cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Treatments</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Composition of treatments</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Galls g root-1 z</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Eggs mass g root-1 z</th>
									<th style="border-bottom:1px solid #000; border-top:1px solid #000; text-align:center; vertical-align:center;">Eggs g root-1 z</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td>T1</td>
									<td>Peat moss</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">3.5 a</td>
									<td style="text-align:right">4.0 a</td>
									<td>390 a</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>T2</td>
									<td>Peat moss + Fluopiram</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">0.0 b</td>
									<td style="text-align:right">0.0 b</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">0.0 b</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>T3</td>
									<td>Peat moss 80% + SSPO 20%</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">0.6 b</td>
									<td style="text-align:right">0.3 b</td>
									<td style="text-align:left">6.0 b</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN4">
								<p>zAverages with the same letter indicate that there is no significant difference (Tukey, *= <italic>p</italic>&lt;0.05).</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>With the use of SSPO planted in wheat bran and rice when applying 1200 g m<sup>2 -1</sup>, the number of <italic>M. incognita</italic> galls and eggs decreased from 86.2 to 80.2% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Mostafa <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Other reports have shown that the nematocidal activity of SSPO against <italic>N. aberrans</italic> helps achieve a significant reduction when applying a dose of 10, 20 and 30 g mL<sup>-1</sup> in greenhouse pots with sterilized sandy loam soil (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Aslam and Saifullah, 2013</xref>). In addition, <italic>in vitro</italic> evaluations reported that a concentration of 10.7 μg mg<sup>-1</sup> of SSPO was effective to reduce the hatching of eggs and eliminating root-knot nematode juveniles.</p>
				<p>On the other hand, investigations have been carried out on the use of different agricultural substrates for the plantation of <italic>P. ostreatus</italic>, which may influence the nematocidal activity of the spent substrate. For example, one study evaluated the productive capacity of <italic>P. ostreatus</italic> using dehydrated alfalfa (<italic>Medicago sativa</italic>) as a supplement in different agricultural substrates and found that supplementing with alfalfa increased the biological efficiency and the rate of biodegradation of the substrates (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Romero <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>). Another study evaluated the production of <italic>P. ostreatus</italic> in different agroresidual substrates, such as barley (<italic>Hordeum vulgare</italic>) straw, plantain (<italic>Musa paradisiaca</italic>) leaf and maize (<italic>Zea mays</italic>) forage, and found that the mixture of these substrates can influence the production of the edible fungus and, potentially, the properties of the spent substrate (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Vázquez-Vázquez <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). Although these studies do not cover a study on the nematocidal activity of the spent substrate <italic>P. ostreatus</italic> against</p>
				<p><italic>N. aberrans</italic>, the search for effective natural inputs is important to reduce the use of commercial nematicides. This step is crucial for a sustainable agricultural production, although it is essential to know how the active metabolites that are present act and to analyze their efficiency under real field conditions.</p>
				<p>The results of this investigation allow us to conclude that the SSPO has a nematocidal activity of 98% of <italic>in vitro</italic> mortality against second-stage <italic>N. aberrans</italic> juveniles. Additionally, in the <italic>in situ</italic> assay, the best treatment was the combination of Peat moss 80% + SSPO 20 %, since the number of galls was reduced by 82 % and the number of <italic>N. aberrans</italic> egg masses by 98 %. It is worth pointing out that the wheat straw in which the fungus was grown is an economic input and its residue can be used as a source of secondary metabolites for the control of gall nematodes. Therefore, the results support the potential of SSPO as a sustainable and environmentally friendly tool for the management of <italic>N. aberrans</italic> affecting chili pepper crops in Mexico, offering natural control alternatives.</p>
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			<ack>
				<title>Acknowledgments</title>
				<p> </p>
				<p>This study was funded by the Secretariat of Science, Humanities, Technology and Innovation (SECIHTI) of Mexico. Project registration number CBF2023-2024-387.</p>
			</ack>
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